汉巴经典之比较性分析─略说电子标记的问题

　　汉巴经典之比较性分析─略说电子标记的问题

　　德国乌兹堡大学硕士 马德伟

　　中华佛学研究 第七期

　　Chung-Hwa Buddhist Studies n.7

　　中华佛学研究所

　　Chung-Hwa Institute of Buddhist Studies

　　--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

　　提要

　　本文是迈向创造一个先进的巴利经典与汉文阿含经电子版的第一步。以比较性目录连接巴汉两个文献汇编之后，研究者可以TEI标记符号（markup）记录其研究结果。透过型式的标记语言，电子版可以标准化且精确的方式告诉读者某两个经典的关系。由研究者自己决定记录的内容、使用的标记语言及标记语言的表达方式。

　　本文1., 2.节叙述用标记符号的原因。接著以两个例子在3.1及3.2说明比较性研究如何运用标记符号。3.1说明如何使用标记让所谓的“出现”（occurrence）概念形式化。“出现”代表某一个字、词或句子是否仅在巴利文或仅在汉文或在两种文献皆出现。这种分析，举例而言，可让巴利文的读者知道某一句巴利文在汉文有没有平行的内容。说明此方法的例子源于《杂阿含经》（大2.99.120b）及相应部（PTS IV, 218）。3.2节介绍“内容结构”（content structure）的概念。设计一个叙述内容结构差异的矩阵后，我们可以简单的以一行标记符号来表现某两个经典有何种差异。此研究方法可协助研究者从两经结构性的差异获得较具体的标志，以探讨巴汉文献汇编的相同与相异之处。

　　关键词：1.阿含经　2.巴利文阿含经　3.比较性分析　4.电子佛典5.标记

　　Issues in the Use of Electronic Markup for the Comparative Analysis of āgama Literature

　　Marcus Bingenheimer

　　M.A., University of Wuerzburg

　　Summary
　　The present paper is one of thefirst steps taken towards the design of an advanced digital edition of the PāliNikaya and the Chinese āgama sutras.

　　After presenting the two textcorpora in digital form, and linking them by a comparative catalogue, it ispossible to encode comparative research using TEI markup.　Through the formalism of themarkup language the resulting digital edition would tell the user in aconsistent and precise way about certain aspects in the relationship betweentwo sutras.　 It is the researcher alone whodecides what aspects to encode and how precisely to do so.

　　The paper outlines (in 1.& 2.)the notion of markup and the reasons for its use in the present case.　Then I offer two examples of howresearch can be encoded into markup.　In 3.1 the occurrenceof a word or phrase in the Pāli and / or Chinese is treated in a comparativefashion.　 Fully done, this kind of analysiswould enable, e.g.　a user of the Pālitext to know to what degree literal parallels to her text exist in Chinese.　For an example, we look at agatha from the Zaahan jing(T2.99.120b) and its parallel in the Sajyutta Nikāya (PTS IV, 218).

　　In 3.2 the content structureof the Arrow sutra in Chinese and Pāli is analysed and compared.　The results are encoded by way ofone markup line that describes the difference between the sutras according to apreviously devised matrix.　This perspectiveallows precise, quantifiable statements of differences between the two corporaas a whole, based on structural differences between sutra versions.

　　Key words: 1. āgama Literature　 2. Pāli Nikāyas

　　3.Comparative Analysis 4. EncodingMarkup

　　5.TEI (Text Encoding Initiative)

　　【Contents】

　　0. āgama Literature

　　1. Markup

　　2. Why use Markup for Comparative Analysis?

　　3. What to encode?──Two examples

　　3.1. Occurence

　　3.2. Content Structure

　　0. āgama Literature
　　Of the two main collections of āgamaliterature──in Pāli and Chinese──the Pāli Nikāyas have for variousreasons attracted a lot more scholarly attention during the past century.　Only the Pāli texts have beentranslated into English, and it is these that are generally held to be the “theearliest texts.” To this day, someare even convinced that the Chinese Ahan jing are mere translations of the Pālias it is found in the PTS edition.

　　However, the differences between thetwo corpora do not suggest that one is a translation of the other.　They are rather the result ofdifferent lines of transmission in the Buddhist order.　Both are the product of long processesof canonization and editing that came to an end (of some sort) only after the 5thcentury CE.　By that time thetranslation of most of the Chinese Ahan jing from the Prakrit āgamas ofNorthern India had been completed and the Pāli Nikāyas had reached a new degreeof stability due to Buddhagho?a’s commentaries.

　　Almost hundred years ago, in order togive a western reader an idea of how large the differences between the twocollections are, Akanuma wrote: “if these deviations are not of the kind thatwe find in the four synoptic Gospels, or of such degree as those between theGospels and the Apocrypha, they are nevertheless more than the various readingsof Shakespeare in the Quarto and Folio present.”[1] Statements like this, and the assurancethat the doctrines are basically the same, may have lead to the impression thata comparative study would yield few relevant new insights.　 Perhaps this is true.　It all depends on what one believes tobe “relevant.”

　　Relevancy is also a central feature ofelectronic markup, the meta-data that is added to digital texts.　This article is a first take on how wecould use the advantages of the digital medium for a comparative analysis ofthe two traditions.

　　1. Markup
　　Markup is the data that can, or rathermust, be added to an electronic text to ensure its usefulness in the digitalmedium.　 In order totransfer a text from paper, one needs to encode several features of thetext-on-paper which are usually taken for granted.　Merely to reproduce the words is notenough.　Paragraphs are notthere to make a page look nice, but are a conscious effort by an author oreditor to encode information regarding the structure of the text.　In a manuscript the hand of thescribe, the quality of paper, etc.　might be worthmentioning.　Therefore,standards have evolved that allow us to encode almost every kind of informationconcerning any level of a given text.　HTML is one ofthese standards, XML (eXtensible Markup Language) another.

　　For the examples given here we willuse the XML-conformant standard developed by the TEI (Text EncodingInitiative)-consortium (edition P4).

　　There are different standards, andeven within the same standard there is always more than one way to markup atext.　The designs used inthe present paper are meant as illustrations and do not suggest a final markupsolution for the problems in question.　They are ratherpreliminary suggestions toward a digital comparative edition of the ChineseAhan jing and the Pāli Nikāyas.

　　2. Why use Markup for Comparative Analysis?
　　We are rapidly moving into an erawhere the printed text will become a snapshot version of a constantly evolvingdigital text.　 Texts, especiallyscholarly texts, will not anymore be produced with the primary aim ofpublishing them in print.

　　Markup is not only a sine qua nonin the process of digitization, but also a useful research tool for textualstudies.　 For comparativetextual studies of the kind the āgama literature demands, where we have to dealwith large text corpora and a complex edition history, the use of markup forcomparative analysis offers several advantages.

　　1. It is precise and consistant.　Researchers are encouraged to followthrough their own standards in a much more rigorous way than in the usualresearch paper.　Other researcherscan access, evaluate and expand the information easily by using a commonstandard (in our case TEI).

　　2. It is flexible.　The researcher can encode comparativeinformation in one of the corpora (e.g. encoding Pāli equivalents in theChinese text), in both (by using various linking or alignment methods), or in athird place outside the texts (e.g. as in my digital comparative catalog ofPāli and Chinese sutras [ComCat]).

　　The researcher decides what and how toencode (in the framework of the standard) according to his/her aims.　The use of a standard makes it easier forresearchers to communicate with each other, work together, evaluate andstreamline their different approaches.

　　Errors caneasily be corrected, and different opinions and interpretations can be added to any one edition, all the whilekeeping track of all changes by various ways of version-control.

　　3. The results of one’s research,encoded in the markup, can be easily interchanged and reformatted for presentationsin print, on the web or further digital uses.

　　4. The resulting digital edition ischeap and accessible.　 Through theelimination of printing and distribution costs, scholarly editions can be usedby researchers everywhere, independent of the financial means of theirinstitution.

　　3.What to encode?──Two examples
　　Here, we will, in two examples,consider the encoding of two different areas in comparative analysis:occurrence and content structure.　 Other importantfields, such as the markup of linguistic features, will have to wait untilanother occasion.

　　3.1. Occurence
　　Occurrence denotes the existence of acertain passage in a text.　In the followingexample, we will consider a gāthā found in the Za ahan jing (杂阿含经, T02n0099)in volume two, page 120b of the Taishō edition.　Thereis a closely corresponding gāthā in the Pāli canon in volume four, page 218 ofthe PTS (Pāli Text Society) edition.　The topic is ametaphor that likens the arising of sensations (vedanā) in the body to winds inthe sky.

　　We now want to encode informationabout which passages occur in both the Chinese and the Pāli version, and whichoccur only in one version.　For the sake ofsimplicity, we will ignore the problem of variant readings as they are given inthe apparatus of both editions and treat the passages as they appear in themain text.

　　Here is the Pāli text.　The underlined passages do not occurin the Chinese:

　　Yathāpi vātā ākāse// vāyanti vividhā puthū //

　　puratthimā pacchimācāpi // uttarā atha dakkhinā //

　　Sarajā arajā capi// sitā unhā ca ekadā //

　　adhimattāparittā ca// puthu vāyanti mālutā //

　　tathevimasmij kāyasmij // samuppajjanti vedanā //

　　sukhadukkhasamuppatti// adukkhamasukhā ca yā //

　　yato ca bhikkhuātāpī // sampaja??aj nirūpadhi //

　　tato so vedanāsabbā // parijānāti pandito //

　　So vedanā pari??āya// ditthe dhamme anāsavo//

　　kāyassa bhedā dhammattho // sankhyaj nopeti vedagūti //

　　In the XML file ofthe CBETA (Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association) CD we find the Chinesetext together with some useful basic markup.　Underlinedpassages do not exist in the Pāli.

　　譬如虚空中种种狂风起

　　东西南北风四维亦如是

　　有尘及无尘乃至风轮起

　　如是此身中诸受起亦然

　　若乐若苦受及不苦不乐

　　有食与无食贪著不贪著

　　比丘勤方便正智不倾动

　　于此一切受黠慧能了知

　　了知诸受故现法尽诸漏

　　身死不堕数永处般涅槃

　　What has beenencoded here are linebreaks s, one pagebreak (in fact acolumn break between 120b and 120c), lines in the gāthā and the gāthāas a whole has been taken as a linegroup .　I have added two elements, which we will need later.

　　Especially useful for us are theidentifying numbers that enable us to adress each line.　It saves some work if there is alreadya basic markup structure with addressable identifiers that one can refer to.　If there is none, one can alwayscreate one’s own (TEI-conformant) structure. In English the text reads:

　　Like the winds in the sky, different winds blow

　　From east and west and north and south [(only in theChinese:) from the other four directions as well][2]

　　Some with dust and some without [(only in the Pāli:) Hot andcool,

　　Fierce and easy] many winds there blow

　　Thus, in the body arise the various sensations

　　Pleasant, unpleasant and neutral [(only in the Chinese:)Defiled or undefiled,[3] with attachment or without]

　　So does the bhikkhu strive ardently, with rightunderstanding, free from passions[4]

　　All the sensations the wise will be able to understand

　　And by knowing the various sensations he realizes theDhamma, is without impurities

　　After he dies, [(only in Pāli:) established in Dhamma], hewill not be reborn, [(only in Pāli:) he has reached the final goal] [(only inChinese:) forever abiding in Nirvana][5]

　　Now that the material is ready, let usconsider: what are the logical possibilities of “occurance” for the purpose ofcomparative analysis? Clearly, there are three.

　　1. Apassage appears in both Chinese and Pāli. (Leaving aside varying degrees ofcorrespondance for now.)

　　2. A passage appears only in Pāli.

　　3. A passage appears only in Chinese.

　　Translatedinto TEI this set of possibilities could be expressed like this:

　　This is a group ofinterpretive tools .　It assigns anidentifier to each possibility.　 It also says thatsomeone with the initials of Mister Bean is responsible for the interpretation.

　　Now we can startwith the markup.　Here, we willinsert the markup in the Pāli text, but we could as well put it in the Chinesetext or in an altogether different location.

　　 Yathāpi vātā ākāse, vāyanti vividhā puthū

　　puratthimā pacchimācāpi, uttarā atha dakkhinā.

　　sarajā arajācapi, sitā unhā ca ekadā

　　adhimattā parittāca, puthū vāyanti māluta.

　　tathevimasmij kāyasmij, samuppajjantivedanā

　　sukhadukkhasamuppatti,adukkhamasukhā ca yā

　　yato ca bhikkhuātāpī sampaja??a?na ri?cati.

　　tato so vedanāsabbā parijānāti pandito.

　　So vedanāpari??āya, di??hedhamme anāsavo;

　　kāyassa bhedādhammattho,sankhyaj nopeti vedagūti

　　Here we are sayingthat the segment from “Yathāpi” to “arajā capi” has the analyticalvalue (ana) “chpa”.　In our above we have defined “chpa” as denoting a passage thatexists in both Chinese and Pāli.　The followingsegment sitā unhā caekadā adhimattā parittā ca appears only in the Pāli version, therefore it has the analyticalvalue “op.”

　　We indicate the existence of a passagethat appears only in Chinese by using an extended pointer thatidentifies a passage in another document (doc) by using the (from) and (to)attributes.　 With the (ana)attribute we express that this passage exists only in Chinese “oc.”[6]

　　If we do not want to add theinformation into the texts themselves, we can use the element toanalyse the two versions.　 This results in alist of elements that can be attached to the text documents orstored in a different place.　The items on thelist would look like this:

　　The above examplewas to illustrate how the occurrence of shorter passages in both or eitherversion of our texts can be encoded.　While occurrencecan be encoded on the level of single words and passages it is also possible tostate occurrence for larger units.　To say that acertain sutra exists in both Pāli and Chinese can already be taken as aninstance of “chpa.” In many sutraslarge, distinct parts exist only in either Chinese or Pāli.　These could be marked with the samemechanism.　 But there isclearly more to do in a comparison of the two corpora.

　　3.2. ContentStructure
　　Similarity and difference in thecontent structure of related sutras is a relevant phenomenon for comparativeanalysis.　We need a mechanismto describe differences on this level, which is considerably more complex thanthat of occurence.　In order to accomplishthis, one has to define a set of structural components.　Again, what kind of structures areencoded depends on one’s interests and research aims.

　　In the following a tripartite contentstructure is assumed.　The beginning of asutra often outlines a “setting” that describes the where, who and why of thesutra (this could be further divided into “location”, “protagonists” and“speech instance” components).　Also, most āgamasutras have a “topic,” which is usually, but not necessarily, a questionanswered by the Buddha.

　　Finally, let us call “argument” theargumentation as it is developed in its logical structure and the ideas andconcepts employed.

　　Comparing a Pāliand a Chinese sutra[7] one might want to say that the one orthe other of these structural parts are the same or different.　Expressed in TEI as this becomes:

　　With these tools,however, we can so far only produce statements of occurrence on a contentstructure level.　This does not takeus much beyond the previous example, where we could say about a that it existed in both versions or only in one.

　　If we want to gain a new take onstructural sameness and difference of content we will have to explore furtherwhat possible differences between sutras exist.

　　What then, canhappen, assuming there are setting, topic and argument? The logicalpossibilities are that two sutras have:

　　“same setting, sametopic, same argument”

　　“same setting, sametopic, different argument”

　　“same setting,different topic, same argument”

　　“samesetting, different topic, different argument” [not useful when one comparesPāli and Chinese][8]

　　“different setting,same topic, same argument”

　　“different setting,same topic, different argument”

　　“different setting,different topic, same argument”

　　“differentsetting, different topic, different argument” [not useful, this is tantamountto saying the sutras are not related; comparison requires at least some form ofsimilarity]

　　Ifwe include only the useful combinations into our we get amore sophisticated scheme.　The s canbe choosen freely by the encoder.

　　We can now not onlyencode if the topic of two (or more) sutras is the same or different.　We can also express which out of sixtypes of content structure-differences exists between these sutras.

　　Why would anyone want to know this?Simply, because this kind of structural comparison would lead to objective,quantitative data that could be used to gain new insights in the formation ofthe early Buddhist canon.　If it can be shown,for instance, that in a sizeable number of Pāli-Chinese sutra pairs that havethe same setting and topic there are differences in argumentation (“CS2”),this would constitute further evidence that during the centuries of oraltransmission the connection between topic and argument was especiallysusceptible to change.

　　To illustrate this the Arrow Sutta[9] will serve as example.　All my comments in [ ] could beexpressed with some form of markup.　 Merely for the sakeof simplicity I will keep the focus on content-structure.　 This does not require any markup inthe text (except s).　I will show at theend how to encode our conclusion about the content structure in a simple way.

　　[1. Part: Setting and Topic]
　　1.1 如是我闻一时佛住王舍城迦兰陀竹园
　　尔时世尊告诸比丘愚痴无闻凡夫生苦乐受不苦不乐受多闻圣弟子亦生苦乐受不苦不乐受诸比丘凡夫圣人有何差别
　　Thus have I heard once the Buddha wasstaying at Rājagaha in the Karanda Bamboo Grove.

　　At that time he told a number ofbhikkhus: In an ignorant, untaught average person there arise pleasant,unpleasant and neutral vedanā [sensations].　Alsoin a well taught saintly follower, there arise pleasant, unpleasant and neutralvedanā.　What, bhikkhus, isthe difference between the average person and the saint?

　　1.2 诸比丘白佛世尊是法根法眼法依善哉世尊唯愿广说诸比丘闻已当受奉行
　　The Bhikkhus said: The World-honoredOne is the root, the eye, the garment of the Dhamma, verily, if only theWorld-honored One were to elaborate on this, we would listen, remember andrevere [the teaching].

　　1.3 佛告诸比丘愚痴无闻凡夫身触生诸受苦痛逼迫乃至夺命忧愁啼哭称怨号呼
　　The Buddha told the bhikkhus: Whensensations arise in the body of the ignorant, untaught average person, whenthey are harrowed by pain and suffering, as if it were going to kill them.　They sob and cry sorrowfully, andloudly exclaim their anguish.

　　[1.3 might be a mistake in the text.　The passage is the same as the nextsection, but without the introduction (“Listencarefully……”).　 It looks like anunintentional reduplication of the following, perhaps a scribal error.　(I could encode this interpretation.　If later someone finds reason to thecontrary he / she could correct me, by making use of the same markupmechanism.)]

　　Assutavā,bhikkhave, puthujjano sukhampi vedana? vediyati, dukkhampi vedana? vediyati,adukkhamasukhampi vedana? vediyati.　Sutavā, bhikkhave, ariyasāvakosukhampi vedana? vediyati, dukkhampi vedana? vediyati, adukkhamasukhampi vedana? vediyati.　Tatra, bhikkhave, ko viseso ko adhippāyoso ki? nānākara?a? sutavatoariyasāvakassa assutavatā puthujjanenāti? Bhagava?mūlakā no, bhante, dhammā…… la ……

　　[As we see, 1.3 does not appear inPāli.　The restcorresponds exactly to the Chinese, except that the Pāli lacks the introductoryformula that describes the location.　It is for theencoder / interpreter to decide, if the absence of the stereotypical formula“while the Buddha stayed in Rājagaha……” in the Pāli version is enough to saythat the setting is different.　I consider thelocation-part of the setting to be of less importance than protagonists, andspeech instance.　And these are thesame in both sutras: the Buddha speaks to the bhikkhus and he does so unasked.　Since the location is not explicitlydifferent in the Pāli, but only absent, I would in this case opt for “samesetting.” The topic regarding the arising of vedanas in the wise and theaverage person is the same in Pāli and Chinese therefore “same topic.”]

　　[2. Part: Sensations in theuntrained person. Unique passages in bold font.]
　　2.1. 佛告诸比丘谛听善思当为汝说诸比丘愚痴无闻凡夫身触生诸受增诸苦痛乃至夺命愁忧称怨啼哭号呼心生狂乱当于尔时增长二受若身受若心受
　　The Buddha told the bhikkhus: Listencarefully and consider well.　I will explain itto you, oh bhikkhus.　When ignorant,untaught average persons come in touch with the arising of the varioussensations, they add to their pains and sufferings, as if they were going tokill them.　They sob and crysorrowfully, they loudly exclaim their anguish, and their minds get confused.　At these times their sensations becometwofold, physical and mental.

　　Assutavā,bhikkhave, puthujjano dukkhāya vedanāya phu??ho samāno socatikilamati paridevati urattā?īkandati sammoha? āpajjati.　So dve vedanā vediyati ── kāyika?ca, cetasika?ca.

　　[For the level of this analysis, thisis the same.]

　　2.2. 譬如士夫身被双毒箭极生苦痛愚痴无闻凡夫亦复如是增长二受身受心受极生苦痛
　　所以者何以彼愚痴无闻凡夫不了知故于诸五欲生乐受触受五欲乐受五欲乐故为贪使所使苦受触故则生嗔恚生嗔恚故为恚使所使
　　于此二受若集若灭若味若患若离不如实知不如实知故生不苦不乐受为痴使所使为乐受所系终不离苦受所系终不离不苦不乐受所系终不离云何系谓为贪恚痴所系为生老病死忧悲恼苦所系
　　This is like in a man whose body isstuck with two poisoned arrows in whom there arises intense pain.　An ignorant, untaught average person,having compounded his sensations to two layers, suffers intense pain on boththe level of physical and mental sensations.

　　Why is that? It is because theignorant, untaught average person does not understand that out of the fivesense-desires [五欲 pa?cakāma?] he comes in touch with pleasant sensations.　By these pleasant sensations heexperiences the pleasures of the five senses [五欲乐 pa?cakāmasukhā?].　 And because heexperiences these pleasures one becomes afflicted by the tendency to crave [为贪使所使].　When he experiences unpleasantsensations, then because of this there arises aversion.　With this aversion one becomesafflicted by the tendency to hate [为恚使所使].

　　He does not well understand theformation and the dissolution, the sweetness[10], the misery andthe abandonment of these two kinds of sensation.　Becausehe does not well understand this, when neutral sensations arise, one becomesafflicted by the tendency towards ignorance [为痴使所使avijjānusayo soanuseti].　Thus he is bound by pleasantsensations, not able to let go of them; bound by unpleasant sensations, notable to let go of them; and bound by the neutral sensations, not able to let goof them.　 Thus, bound bycraving, aversion and ignorance, he is bound to birth, old age, sickness,death, worry, grief and all the painful trouble.

　　[ThePāli version is somewhat different:]

　　Seyyathāpi,bhikkhave, purisa? sallena vijjheyyu?.　 Tam ena? dutiyena sallena anuvedha? vijjheyyu?.　Eva? hi so, bhikkhave, puriso dve sallena vedana? vediyati.　Eva? eva kho, bhikkhave, assutavā puthujjano dukkhāya vedanāya phu??ho samānosocati kilamati paridevati urattā?i? kandati sammoha? āpajjati.　So dve vedanā vediyati ── kāyika?ca,cetasika?ca.　[This says the same as the Chinese.　 Not sothe following:]

　　Tassāyeva khopana dukkhāya vedanāya phu??ho samāno pa?ighavā hoti.　Tam ena? dukkhāya vedanāya pa?ighavanta?, yo dukkhāyavedanāya pa?ighānusayo, so anuseti.　So dukkhāya vedanāya phu??ho samānokāmasukha? abhinandati.　Ta? kissa hetu? Nahi so, bhikkhave, pajānāti assutavā puthujjano a??atra kāmasukhā dukkhāyavedanāya nissara?a?, tassa kāmasukham abhinandato yosukhāya vedanāya rāgānusayo so anuseti.

　　[PTS -Translation:]

　　Touched by the painful feeling hefeels repugnance for it.　Feeling thatrepugnance for the painful feeling, the lurking tendency to repugnance fastenson him [patighānusayo soanuseti[11]].　Touched by the painful feeling, hedelights in pleasant feeling.　Why so? Theuntaught manyfolk, brethren, knows no refuge from painful feeling save sensualpleasure.　 Delightening inthat sensual pleasure, the lurking tendency to sensual pleasure [rāgānusayoso anuseti] fastens on him.

　　So tāsa? vedanāna? samudaya?caattha?gama?ca assāda?ca ādīnava?ca nissara?a?ca yathābhūta? nappajānāti.　Tassa tāsa? vedanāna? samudaya?ca attha?gama?ca assāda?ca ādīnava?ca nissara?a?ca yathābhūta? appajānato,yo adukkhamasukhāya vedanāya avijjānusayo so anuseti.　So sukha? ce vedana? vediyati, sa??utto na? vediyati.　Dukkha? ce vedana? vediyati,sa??utto na? vediyati.　 Adukkhamasukha? ce vedana? vediyati,sa??utto na? vediyati.　Aya? vuccati, bhikkhave,assutavā puthujjano sa??utto jātiyā jarāya mara?ena sokehi paridevehidukkhehi domanassehi upāyāsehi, sa??utto dukkhasmāti vadāmi.

　　[The argumentationin this last part is again identical with the Chinese.]

　　[Here the Chineseand the Pāli both try to explain of how the experience of vedanā by an averageperson leads to bondage.　They differ,however, in their argumentation.　The way craving andaversion arise is explained differently. The Chinese states it relatively straightforward:

　　SensualDesire -> pleasant sensations -> craving

　　Unpleasantsensations -> aversion

　　Neutralsensations -> ignorance

　　ThePāli makes an elegant little loop:

　　Unpleasantsensations -> aversion & delight in sensual pleasure

　　Delightin sensual pleasure -> craving

　　Neutralsensations -> ignorance

　　Thoughboth versions converge again in the conclusion, we take this to be an instanceof “different argument”.]

　　[3. Part: Sensations in the noble disciple]
　　3.1. 多闻圣弟子身触生苦受大苦逼迫乃至夺命不起忧悲称怨啼哭号呼心乱发狂当于尔时唯生一受所谓身受不生心受
　　Now if there arises pain in body ofthe learned, noble disciple, if he is harrowed by great pain, as if it weregoing to kill him, he does not give rise to exclaim his anguish full of griefand sorrow, does not sob and cry, and does not become mad and wild.　Because at this time there only arisesone [kind of] sensation, namely physical sensation and not mental sensation.

　　Sutavā ca kho,bhikkhave, ariyasāvako dukkhāya vedanāya phu??ho samāno na socati, nakilamati, na paridevati, na urattā?i? kandati, na sammoha? āpajjati.　So eka? vedana? vediyati – kāyika?, na cetasika?.

　　[This is the same.]

　　3.2.譬如士夫被一毒箭不被第二毒箭当于尔时唯生一受所谓身受不生心受
　　为乐受触不染欲乐不染欲乐故于彼乐受贪使不使于苦触受不生嗔恚不生嗔恚故恚使不使于彼二使[12]集灭昧患离如实知如实知故不苦不乐受痴使不使于彼乐受解脱不系苦受不苦不乐受解脱不系于何不系谓贪恚痴不系生老病死忧悲恼苦不系
　　Like a man struck by only one arrow,not by two.　 He at that time hasonly one [kind of] sensation.　What is called thephysical sensation does not give rise to mental sensations.

　　When he comes in touch with pleasantsensations, he is not defiled by the desire for pleasure.　Because he is not defiled by thedesire for pleasure one does not become afflicted by the tendency to crave forthese pleasant sensations.　When there areunpleasant sensations he does not give rise to aversion.　Therefore one does not becomeafflicted by the tendency of aversion [against unpleasant sensations].　He understands the formation,dissolution, taste, misery and abandonment of these two kinds of sensations asthey are.　 Because heunderstands them as they are, he does not become afflicted by the tendency ofignorance in regard to neutral sensations.　He is released, notbound by his pleasant sensations; he is released, not bound by unpleasant andneutral sensations.　How is this?Because he is not bound by craving, aversion and ignorance, he is not bound tobirth, old age, sickness, death, worry, grief and all the painful trouble.

　　Seyyathāpi,bhikkhave, purisa? sallena vijjheyya.　 Tamena? dutiyena sallenaanuvedha? na vijjheyya.　Eva?hi so, bhikkhave, purisoekasallena vedana? vediyati.　Evameva kho, bhikkhave, sutavāariyasāvako dukkhāya vedanāya phu??ho samāno na socati, na kilamati, naparidevati, na urattā?i? kandati, na sammoha? āpajjati.　So eka? vedana? vediyati –kāyika?, na cetasika?.

　　Tassāyeva khopana dukkhāya vedanāya phu??ho samāno pa?ighavā na hoti.　Tamena? dukkhāya vedanāya appa?ighavanta?, yo dukkhāyavedanāya pa?ighānusayo, so nānuseti.　 So dukkhāyavedanāya phu??ho samāno kāmasukha? nābhinandati.　 Ta? kissa hetu? Pajānāti hi so, bhikkhave, sutavāariyasāvako a??atra kāmasukhā dukkhāya vedanāya nissara?a?.　 Tassa kāmasukha? nābhinandato yo sukhāya vedanāya rāgānusayo, so nānuseti.　So tāsa? vedanāna? samudaya?ca attha?gama?ca assāda?ca ādīnava? ca nissara?a?ca yathābhūta? pajānāti.　Tassa tāsa? vedanāna? samudaya?ca attha?gama?ca assāda?ca ādīnava?ca nissara?a?ca yathābhūta? pajānato, yoadukkhamasukhāya vedanāya avijjānusayo, so nānuseti.　So sukha?ce vedana? vediyati, visa??utto na? vediyati.　Dukkha?cevedana? vediyati, visa??utto na? vediyati.　Adukkhamasukha?cevedana? vediyati, visa??utto na? vediyati.　Aya? vuccati,bhikkhave, sutavā ariyasāvako visa??utto jātiyā jarāya mara?ena sokehiparidevehi dukkhehi domanassehi upāyāsehi, visa??utto dukkhasmāti vadāmi.

　　[Both the Pāli and the Chinese versionfollow their respective lines of argumention.]

　　[4. Part: Thefourth part in both sutras consists in a gāthā.　Somepassages are related, but the original of the Chinese must have differedconsiderably from the Pāli.　There are only twostanzas in Chinese versus three in Pāli.　Gāthās in theirsūtra contexts pose a number of special problems for comparative research,which I will skip here.]

　　The analysis of content structure, aswe have approached it above, concerns the text as a whole.　It is therefore not necessary to splitthe texts in segments .　What we can do hereis to simply link both texts with a element and allow for ananalytical attribute like (ana) to carry our interpretation: “same setting,same topic, different argument” (“CS2” in our above).

　　A number of these links would be aneffective way to refine the existing catalogues[13] that relate thePāli and the Chinese Tripitaka.　The use of markupallows us to bring structural analysis to new levels of precision andflexibility.　Especially whenlarge text corpora are concerned, the advantages of the digital medium aresubstantial.　 Where there is ateam of scholars working on the same corpus, the use of markup can provide astandard that allows for easy communication and interchange of results.

　　Using markup may not be everybody’scup of tea, but it has a number of solid advantages over the usual way toencode one’s research in the form of annotated essays or translations.　In an annotated, printed treatment ofa text the author’s strategy of what and why s/he annotates and if consistantlyso, is rarely transparent.　The formalism ofmarkup grammar will of course never replace the free flow of the essay, but itcan certainly provide us with new helpful tools for textual research,especially in the field of Buddhist Studies.

　　--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

　　[1] Anesaki, Masaharu: TheFour Buddhist āgamas in Chinese ── A Concordance of their Parts and of the Corresponding Counterpartsin the Pāli Nikāyas.　 (1908), p. 2.

　　[2] I am grateful toDouglas Gildow for suggesting this translation.

　　[3] I take 有食与无食 to be sāmisā nirāmisā ca (lit.　withflesh and without flesh) in Pāli.　The term sāmisāwhen applied to vedanā denotes the vedanā that arise through contact with sensualobjects, thereby being defiled.　The sensations experienced in thejhānas, however, are said to be nirāmisā, undefiled.　See the paper by the Vipassana Research Institute: “Sāmisa andNirāmisa in Meditation” in The Importance of Vedanā and Sampaja??a.　Nashik (Mahārashtra, India): VRI, 1990 [Reprint 2002], 53~55.

　　[4] Here the PTS main textPāli version does not match as well with the Chinese as the variant “sampaja??a? na ri?cati”given in footnote 7.

　　[5] The last lines do notmatch well.　身死不堕数 translates kāyassa bhedā sa?khya? nopeti.　The Chinese omits dhamma??ho and vedagū.　永处般涅槃 “abiding forever in Nirvana”is not there in the Pāli, but does not look like a addition to fill the metereither.　The original must have been different.

　　[6] We have to tweak the DTDto allow the ana attribute into the , but I think this is the bestsolution.　For this kind of comparative analysis it is desirable to have linksthat can associate interpretative values.

　　[7] It is well possible tocompare more than two sutras in this way.　For the sakeof simplicity here we will use only two.

　　[8] Comparing the Pāli withthe Chinese “same setting” does not mean much, because there is only a limitednumber of settings.　Thus, the constellation “samesetting, different topic and argument,” is true for too many sutra pairs, e.g.　all the sutras that Buddha told Ananda in Sāvatthī.　It can be a useful category, however, if one first searches forstructures inside one tradition and then compares the results.　E.g.　How many sutras were told by Sāriputta in the Pāli and the Chinesetradition respectively?
　　[9] Sallatena Sutta:PTS SN IV, 207; English IV, 139.　Chineseversion in Taishō vol. 2, p. 120a.

　　[10] 味 (“taste”) here probably renders assāda?.

　　[11] There are seven anusaya(inclinations, tendencies).　One can have anusaya towardskāma-rāgā (sensual passion), pa?igha (grudge), di??hi (views), vicikiccā (doubt), māna (conceit), bhavarāga (cravingfor continued existance), avijjā (ignorance).

　　[12] 使 here probably a mistake for受.

　　[13] Anesaki (1908), Akanuma,Chizen赤沼智善: Kanpa shibu shiagon goshōroku 《汉巴四部四阿含互照录》（The Comparative Catalogue of Chinese āgamas and Pāli Nikāyas）.　Nagoya: Hajinkaku shobō破尘阁书房, (1929),and my digital “ComCat” (trial version 2002) available at the DBLM website.