中国佛教与中华民族性格

中央民族大学牟钟鉴教授指出，“跨民族的宗教是存在的，不具有民族特色的宗教是没有的。” 公元前一世纪，佛教传入中国，与中国固有的儒家、道家文化及民间习俗相结 合，形成具有中国民族特色的“中国佛教”，成为中国文化不可分割的有机组成部分，与中国固有的文化一道，共同滋润着中华民族的精神，塑造了中华民族的性格特征，对中国的政治、经济、习俗等各方面产生了巨大的影响。本文重点探讨了佛教在塑造中华民族“天人合一”的世界观、“伦理义务”的道德观、“修身养性”的人生观、“以孝治天下”的治国 思想、“由小康到大同”的社会理想和“忠恕仁义”的处世原则等六大性格特征的过程中扮演的极其重要的角色。

众所周知，中华民族的性格深受儒家文化的影响。然而，由于儒家文化是 小农经济生产方式与封建宗法社会制度下的产物，必然打上时代的烙印，造成中 国人性格的复杂性。近百年來，中国人的民族性格，一直是中、外学者和民间讨 論的热门话题。严复、陈独秀、魯迅、林语堂、胡适、潘光旦、柏杨、李敖、 孙隆基、陶杰和龙应台等中国学者则写下了无数尖锐又不失深刻之作，唤醒无数中国人对民族性格中的小农思想、狭隘自私、愚忠思想、男尊女卑、奴性心理 等负面因素进行反思;而李约瑟、罗素、汤恩比、费正清、史密斯、何天爵、卫 禮贤等外国学者在赞扬中国人勤劳节俭、谦逊温和、敬老尊贤，家庭为重等特性 的同时，也指出中国人因循守旧、缺乏进取、逆来顺受等负面性格。本文试图从中国人的世界观、道德观、人生观、治国思想、社会理想和处世原则等方面入手，探索佛教在塑造中华民族性格过程中所扮演的角色，以期帮助人们加深了解中华 民族的深层心理和精神依托。

1、“天人合一”与 “缘起法”

西方人认为，“人是独立个体”，而中国人则认为，“人是大自然、社会群体的一分子”。因此，古人不会把人与自然分割、对立起來，而是二者互相包容、相得 益彰。这种“天人合一”的世界观成为炎黄子孙性格的重要特征。「天」是天道， 即自然之理性，佛教的“缘起法”对此有完美的诠释，說明世界是众缘所成，物种是此生彼长，顺着自然的变化，适者生存之规律，有情众生和植物在分享地球资源，发展出大自然的生物链。“缘起法”告诫人们，人类只是生物链中的一环。然而，拥有高科技的现代人，自视为万物之靈，可以随意夺取地球资源，认为这 是我所应该得到的、这是我应该拥有的、这是我应该利用的。这种自我执着的思 想从此影响着人类，佛教称之为“我、我所”，属于贪欲的一种表现。在利欲的 驱使之下，不少人以损坏自然环境为代价，虽获取最大限度的利益，却对人类赖以生存的环境造成令人震撼的影响，使得自然灾难频频发生:全球变暖、冰山破 裂、洪水泛濫、风雪袭击、大海咆哮、大地震动、病毒变种、疫症横行……灾难性的惩罚一再提醒人们“天人合一”的世界观至今仍有很大的现实意义。更重要的是，佛教的“缘起法”从理論上阐释了“天人合一”的合理性因而成为中国人性格中最重要的特征之一。

2、“伦理义务”与“业力缘起”

依据《礼记‧礼运》记载，尧、舜时代，天下为公，人人尽职，法律仅仅是“圣人不得已而为之”的辅助手段，形成了中华民族最早的道德观——责任第 一。春秋战国时期，天下为私，礼崩乐坏，群雄并起，孔子主张恢复礼教，克己 复礼。具体做法是：用五常(仁、义、礼、智、信)来调整、规范君臣、父子、兄 弟、夫妇、朋友等人伦关系，要求每一个人在明白自己身份的同时，严守自己应 尽的道德责任。由此可見，儒家道德观的核心是“责任”二字。千百年來，这种 道德责任感一直占据中国倫理道德的主流，鼓励无数仁人义士拥有“为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平”的使命感与责任感。[9]

然而，如果有人不履行自己的责任，又当如何？諸子百家因对人性的理解不同而有所差别。儒家基于“人之初，性本善”之理解，主张君主应以身作则，以德为政，通过礼乐教化，使百姓向善，自觉地履行自己的责任，而法律只是在德 治无法施行时才采用的工具。法家认为，自私是人的本性，只有树立君主绝对的权威，明订赏罚，通过严刑峻法，才能有效地使万民尽自己的责任和义务。换而 言之，以严刑作阻吓，使人民不敢违法，用厚赏作鼓励，使人民乐于守法，以达到对社会的绝对控制。然而秦朝依此主张治国二世便亡。鉴于以上兩种手段都无 法使万民心甘情愿地尽自己的责任和义务，道家认为天下不安定的原因是统治者 有所为而造成的，基于人的本性乃自然无为这种看法，崇尚清静无为，主张恢復 人的自然本性，实行无为而治的政策。然而这种主张仍然无法彻底解决如何才能使一个人自觉地尽自己的责任和义务等问题。

公元一世纪前后，佛教东來，为中国的倫理道德注入了新的血液。儒家只 提出了人们今生今世要为君主、社会及一切人倫关系担负责任的要求，但却没有提供为什么要这样做的有力理由，因此在执行时往往有点力不从心。佛教的「业力缘起」回答了人们为什么要尽这样的责任。“善有善报，恶有恶报，莫言不报，时节未到”的因果报应定律，深深地影响着世世代代的炎黄子孙，成为中国人的性格特征之二。

3、“修身养性”与“自净其意”

《礼记·大学》云，“古之欲明明德于天下者，先治其国；欲治其国者，先齐 其家；欲齐其家者，先修其身；欲修其身者，先正其心。”千百年來，人们把“修身养性”、“治国安邦”看成是人生最高的追求目标。

佛教强调，“修身养性”，重在对心靈的净化。正如《法句经》云，“诸法意 先导，意主意造作。若以染污意，或语或行业，是则苦随彼，如轮随兽足。”这說明染污的心引发不道德的行为，烦恼随之而起。以贪心为例，人“需要的不多，想要的太多。”見到自己喜欢的东西便想占有，贪欲生起，由此而引发各种人生、社会问题，成为社会不和谐发展的重要因素。正如佛陀所云，“诸苦所因， 贪欲为本。”[

“诸法意先导，意主意造作。若以清净意，或语或行业，是则乐随彼，如影不离形。”这說明，有了清净的心，才会有清净的行为和高雅的语言。换而言之， 心灵的净化，是“修身养性”的关键。佛教以心性的转化为中心来说明“修身养性”的关键与实践方法，形成“心性论”，深深地影响着宋明理学和近代新儒家的发展，成为中国人的性格特征之三。

4、“孝顺”与“报恩”

儒家以孝为中心，把这种仁爱恭顺父母之心推广到君王则忠诚，推广到兄弟则友爱，推广到夫妇则和睦，推广到朋友则守信，推广到天下人民，则能敬爱天下的人民。这种“以孝治天下”的治国理念，经歷代统治者的提倡，在中国社会不断得到强化。汉魏兩晋时，“父为子纲”成了封建社会倫理道德支柱的“三纲”之一，进一步巩固了孝在整个中国封建社会道德体系中的地位和作用。到了宋代，经过封建统治者的大力提倡，“父子君臣”更成了天下之定理，于是“君要臣死，臣不得不死”，“父要子亡，子不得不亡”，成了封建道德的金科玉律。由此可見，儒家“孝”的特色，是子绝对服从于双亲，臣绝对服从于天子。换而言 之，凡是双亲的命令和天子的勅旨同样是绝对至上而必须遵守的，以此谓之“孝子”。是以父子的关系，形成“绝对者”与“服从者”的尊与卑，来定为“孝”的倫理原则。

由以上分析可見，儒家强调孝道的重要，但并没有說明为什么要这样做，因 而才要求人们被动地顺从。佛教东來，为了适应中国的孝道文化，把行孝看成是 守戒之总纲与前提。《梵网经》云：“孝顺父母、师、僧三宝，孝顺至道之法，孝 名为戒，亦名制止。”于此佛陀明确提出“孝名为戒”，可見孝在大乘佛教中处 于何等位置。更重要的是，佛家的孝是根据后天经验，由体认父母无限的恩德而 来的，說明“孝顺”的原因是“报恩”。后汉安世高译的《佛說父母恩难报经》、晋竺法护译的《盂蘭盆经》和姚秦鸠摩羅什译的《父母恩重难报经》等对父母的 养育之恩，描述特别深刻详细，可見佛教孝道的本质，确实根源于“报恩”思想。 这对不分好坏而绝对服从的儒家孝道理论正好是一个修正与补充，成为中华民族的性格特征之四，造就了一个礼义之邦。

5、“大同社会”与“人间净土”

“由小康到大同”，一直是千百年來中国人向往的理想的社会。“大同”是“天下为公”，不独亲其亲、子其子，选贤任能，是一个和谐至善完美的社会；“小康”则是“天下为家”，各亲其亲、子其子，是讲信、义、仁、让，有禮、有次 序、和睦安定的社会。

佛教中的净土，是中国人理想中的大同社会最完美的体现。净土世界中一 切人物、自然景观都是庄严、清净、完美、良化的。歷代祖师大德们一直致力于 把人间净土化。太虚大师的「人间佛教」、印顺导师的“人生佛教”为人间净土 化提供了理論依据，而星云大师、证严法师、赵朴初老居士将人间佛教付之行动， 引导民众用佛法來化解自己面对的世间、出世间的种种问题，充分发扬佛教义理 和无我济世的菩萨精神，通过自心的净化达到器世间（环境）的凈化，及有情世 间（大众）的凈化，从而实现人间凈土。正如《维摩经．佛国品》所云：“若菩 萨欲得净土，当净其心，随其心净，则佛土净”。对“大同社会”、“人间净土”理想社会的追求，成为中华民族的性格特征之五。

6、“仁义”与“慈悲”

千百年來，“忠恕仁义”一直是中国人的处世原则。其中“仁”是人的本质 特性，其内涵是指爱人，“仁者爱人”。佛教传入中国后，菩萨的“大慈大悲”思 想深化了传统的“仁爱”思想。龍树菩萨以“慈”定义“爱护”，以“悲”定义“怜悯”，将慈悲的对象扩展至一切众生的身上，平等对待一切众生，“大慈”能 与乐，“大悲”可拔苦。体现慈悲的精神，才是尊重“人权”的真正意义。这种 平等对待一切众生的慈悲情怀，成为中华民族的性格特征之六，在弱肉强食的当今世界仍具有极大的现实意义。

结论

公元前一世纪，佛教传入中国，与中国固有的儒家、道家文化及民间习俗相结合，形成具有中国民族特色的“中国佛教”，成为中国文化不可分割的有机 组成部分。虽然歷代统治者多數支持与利用儒家文化，达到维护宗法等级制度与王侯统治地位的目的，甚至是提倡罢黜百家，独尊儒术，但是佛教以其博大精深的教义、无与倫比的哲学思辩和佛门大智慧，与中国固有的文化一道，共同滋润 着中华民族的精神，在塑造中华民族性格特征的过程中，扮演着极其重要的角 色，对中国的政治、经济、社会等各方面产生了巨大的影响。

Chinese Buddhism And Chinese Ethnical Character

Sik Kinchiu

Chairman, the Buddhist Association of Macau

As pointed out by Professor Mou Zhongjian of the Central University for Nationalities, China, “while there have been cases of religions transgressing ethnographical boundaries, none remains free from subsequent indigenization.” Upon its transmission to China in the 1st Century BC, Buddhism blended with the original Confucianism, Taoism and customary rites, and eventually evolved into “Chinese Buddhism” bearing strong Chinese ethnical character. As an inseparable living component of the Chinese culture and alongside with other orthodox traditions, Chinese Buddhism has been instrumental in nurturing the spirit and molding the characteristics of the Chinese race; hence influential to the politics, economy and customs of China. This article explores the important role played by the Buddhism in the formative process for the six prominent characteristics of the Chinese race, namely, the world view of “Unity of the Universe and Man”, moral code based on “Ethical Obligations”, “Personal Cultivation” as purpose of life, “Rule a country by Filial Piety” as political policy, “From Small Tranquility to Grand Union” as social idealism, and “Loyalty, Forgiveness, Human-heartedness, and Righteousness” as approach to human relations.

Commonly known, Chinese ethnical character has been heavily influenced by the Confucian culture. Evolved in an era of peasant economy and feudal social structure, the Confucian culture inevitably carried with it the marks of the time which add to the complexity of Chinese ethnical character. During the past ten decades, there have been many discussions, academic and general alike, on Chinese ethnical character. Chinese scholars, including Yan Fu，Chen Duxiu, Lu Xun, Lin Yutong, Hu Shi, Pan Guangdan, Bo Yang7, Li Ao, Sun Longji, Tao Jie, and Long Yingtai, have written numerous articles prompting the Chinese to reflect on the negative aspects such as, peasant thinking, narrow-mindedness and selfishness, undiscerning loyalty, sexism, servility etc. Foreign scholars, including Joseph Needham, Bertrand Russell, Arnold Joseph Toynbee, John King Fairbank, Anthony Smith, Chester Holcombe, and Richard Wilhelm, while praising Chinese people for their being frugal and industrious, humble and modest, respectful to the elder and virtuous, and family-centered, have also pointed out their undesirable conservativeness, lack of enterprising spirit, submissiveness, etc. From the perspectives of world view, moral code, purpose of life, political policy, and approach to human relations, this article attempts to explore the role played by the Buddhism in the formative process for the Chinese ethnical character, with a view of helping people better understand the deep psychology and spiritual devotion of Chinese race.

1. “Unity of the Universe and Man” and “Doctrine of Dependent Origination”

Westerners believe in “person as a unique entity”, while Chinese adopt the view that, “man is part of the nature and societal community”. Rather than severed from each other, man and nature have long been considered mutually containing and benefiting. The world view of “Unity of the Universe and Man” constitutes an important feature of the Chinese ethnical character. “Universe”, also denoted as the way of the heaven, here means the law of the nature. A perfect interpretation has been provided by the Doctrine of Dependent Origination of the Buddhism which perceives the world as a synergy of conditions. Species come into existence and evolve naturally under the survival-of-the-fittest law. Sentient beings and plants, in sharing the resources on Earth, form the natural food chain. The Doctrine of Dependent Origination is alerting us that mankind is only a link in the chain. Considered themselves the crown of all creations, modern men with advanced technology have been depleting natural resources at will in a matter of course manner. Such self centered attachment, known as “I” and “mine” in Buddhism, is craving. Reckless with greed, many people gain their own benefit at the cost of the natural environment, resulting in global warming, glacial erosion, flooding, snow calamity, tsunami, earthquake, virus mutation, epidemic …… Punitive disasters, time and again, remind people of the significance of adopting the world view of “Unity of the Universe and Man”. In providing the rationale, the Doctrine of Dependent Origination of the Buddhism has reinforced the ingrained world view of “Unity of the Universe and Man” among the Chinese people, constituting the first feature of their ethnical character.

2. “Ethical Obligations” and “Doctrine of Karma”

According to Li Ji．Li Yun, in the era of Yao and Shun, “a public and common spirit ruled all under the sky”. All people observed their roles, and law was supplementary and “only invoked in unavoidable situations by the sages”. Obligation-comes-first became the earliest moral code for the Chinese race. During the Spring and Autumn Warring States period, people tended to be selfish; social etiquettes were corrupted; and upheavals were everywhere. For remedy, Confucius advocated restoring the teachings of Propriety and recommended forbearance. The five regular constituents of moral worth, namely, human-heartedness, righteousness, courtesy, rationalness, and faithfulness, should be used to adjust and set norms for the human relations between ruler and follower, father and son, elder and younger brothers, husband and wife, and friends. Every one should be clear about his role and strictly discharge his ethical obligation. From this, we can see that “obligation” is the core moral code for Confucianism. For over thousand years, such sense of ethical obligation has presided in the mainstream of Chinese Ethics, and encouraged a lot of benevolent and courageous people vowing “to bring a heart to heaven and earth, to bring livelihood to the general population, to continue the lost teachings of past sages, and to bring about peace to ten thousand generations.” What if someone refuses to discharge his obligation? Diverged views can be found among various schools of thought deal to their different understanding of human nature. Based on the notion that “mankind is instinctively good-natured”, Confucianism urged rulers to act as living examples by administering virtuous measures. People should be educated to actualize their good-nature such that they would discharge their obligations out of their own initiative. Law should only be resorted to when virtuosity could not work. On the contrary, Legalism considered mankind instinctively selfish. In order to make people dutiful, rulers must establish absolute authority and strict law to achieve complete control of the society. Heavy penalties and attracting rewards would provide incentives for people to becoming obedient and law-abiding citizens. However, the Qin Dynasty in adopting such approach failed to rule for more than two reigns. From the view point of Taoism, the intentional efforts of the rulers should account for the ineffectiveness of the above two tactics in prompting people to willingly discharge their obligations. Based on the saying that the universe works harmoniously according to its own ways, Taoism favored “effortless doing” and suggested a “non-action” political approach. Still, there was no answer on how to incite people to be dutiful.

As Buddhism went East around the 1st Century BC, it brought with it new ideas that invigorated the Chinese Ethics. While Confucianism put forth the need to maintain proper human relations, a justification was apparently wanting. Buddhism’s concept of karmic effect did provide the answer. The causation rule, as depicted – “Good deeds bring good rewards, and bad deeds bad rewards. Do not think that there has been no reward. It would come when the time is ripe”, has deeply influenced Chinese people and inherited as the second feature of Chinese ethnical character.

3. “Body-mind cultivation” and “Purification of Mind”

As recorded in Li Ji．Da Xue, “the ancients who wished to demonstrate illustrious virtue to the world, first ruled well their own states. Wishing to rule well their states, they first governed their families smoothly. Wishing to govern their families smoothly, they first cultivated their persons. Wishing to cultivate their persons, they first made upright their mind”. For centuries, people have been taking “personal cultivation” and “running well a State” as their prime missions for life.

For “personal cultivation”, Buddhism emphasizes purification of mind. As rightly pointed out in the Dhammapada, “Mind precedes all mental states. Mind is their chief; they are all mind-wrought. If with an impure mind a person speaks or acts, suffering follows him like the wheel that follows the foot of the ox”. A contaminated mind would lead to unethical behavior, and trouble would follow. “A man needs a little, but wants a lot”.We often want to take possession of things we like. Capable of developing into all kinds of personal and social problems, such greed is one of the key causes of an inharmonious society. As mentioned by the Buddha, “All sufferings are founded on craving”.

As further pointed out in the Dhammapada, “Mind precedes all mental states. Mind is their chief; they are all mind-wrought. If with a pure mind a person speaks or acts, happiness follows him like his never-departing shadow”. Following a pure mind, come the pure actions and elegant speeches. In other words, purification of mind is the key to “personal cultivation”. Buddhism, in adopting the transformation of mind as the practical approach to “personal cultivation”, had formulated the “Doctrine on Nature of Mind”, which heavily influenced the development of the Li (Principles) Studies in Song and Ming periods as well as the modern time Neo-Confucianism. The thinking having infused into the hearts of Chinese people and comes out as the third feature of their ethnical character.

4. “Filial Piety” and “Repaying debt of gratitude”

From the core spirit of loving and respectful to one’s parents, Confucianism advocated extending it to one’s ruler as loyalty, to siblings as fraternity, to spouse as conjugal harmony, to friends as faithfulness, and to subject citizens as benevolent governing. Such “Rule a country by Filial Piety” political concept, upon enforcement reign after reign, gained strong footing in Chinese society. Through the periods of Han, Wei and Jin, “father as the role-model for son” became one of the “three most important relations” which were considered as pillars for social ethics. It fortified the position of filial piety in the ethical system for Chinese feudal society. By the Song Dynasty, through the promotion of the feudal rulers, “father-son, and ruler-follower” became an unchangeable principle. From that, “when the ruler demands for the life of the follower, the follower must comply”, and “when the father wants his son dead, the son must obey” became immutable precepts of the feudal ethics. We can see that, according to Confucianism, filial piety entails sons to act in absolute obedience to their fathers and followers to their rulers. In other words, a “dutiful son” must follow the order from parents or injunction from the ruler. Therefore, the relation between a father and son is that of a noble “totalitarian” and abjectly “obedient citizen”. The ethics of “Filial Piety” was based on such scenario.

From the above analysis, we can see that Confucianism stressed the importance of Filial Piety without explicitly giving the justification and hence tended to incite passive compliance. Upon coming East and for the sake of adapting to the Chinese culture, Buddhism treated filial piety as the guiding principle and prerequisite for percept. As recorded in the Brahmajāla-sūtra, “Observing filial duties to the triple-gems, that is parents, teachers, and sangha, is the way to practice for achievement. Filial Piety is synonymous to a precept, and is also equivalent to refrainment”. Therein, Buddha clearly pointed out “Filial Piety is synonymous to a precept” , reflecting its position in Mahayana Buddhism. Most importantly, Buddhism considered that filial piety should be generated from the experiential recognition of the unlimited parental kindness. “Filial Piety” is, therefore, for “repaying debt of gratitude”. In the Sutra of Not Repayable Parental Kindness translated by Ān Shígāo in late Han period, the Ullambana-sutra translated by DharmarakSa in Jin period, and another Sutra of Not Repayable Parental Kindness translated by Kumārajīva in late Qin period, very detailed descriptions on parental cares can be found. From there, we can indeed realize the thinking rooted in “repaying debt of gratitude”. This is an amendment and supplement to the indiscriminative and absolute submissiveness inherited from the Confucian concept of filial piety. This has resulted in the fourth feature of Chinese ethnical character, prompting a State of Propriety and Righteousness.

5. ”Utopian Society” and “Pure Land on Earth”

“From Small Tranquility to Grand Union” has for centuries longed for by the Chinese as a path leading to Utopian society. “Grand Union” is the time when “a public and common spirit rules all under the sky”, and when people do not love their parents only, nor treat as children only their own children. They entrust chose men of talents, virtue, and ability. This is a harmonious and perfect society. “Small Tranquility” is the time when “family inheritance is the prime concern for all”, and when every one loves his own parents above all others, and cherishes as children only his children. This is a comfort and peaceful society valuing faithfulness, ighteousness, humaneness, modesty, courteousness, and order.

Pure Land, in Buddhism, perfectly stands for the Utopian society for the Chinese. In the heavenly abode of Pure Land, all people and sceneries are stately, pure, perfect and virtuous. Generations of masters have been attempting whole-heartedly to turn the world into Pure Land. The “Buddhism for Human Life” of Venerable Master Taixu and the “Buddhism for the human world” of Venerable Master Yin Shun have provided theoretical foundation for Pure Land on Earth. Master Hsing Yun, Venerable Cheng Yen and Zhao Pochu old laity have adopted a pragmatic approach to Humanistic Buddhism. In order to acquire Pure Land on Earth, they have been leading people to apply Buddhist teachings in solving secular and spiritual problems; make good use of Buddhist principles and the altruistic Bodhisattva spirit; purify their mind for achieving purification of the physical and sentient worlds. As rightly recorded in the Vimalakīrti-nirdeśa-sūtra．Chapter on Land of Buddha, “For the achievement of Pure Land, the bodhisattva should purify his mind. Upon purification of the mind, the Land of Buddha is pure”. Aspiring after “Utopian Society” and “Pure Land on Earth” has become the fifth Chinese ethnical character.

6. “Human-heartedness and Righteousness” and “Metta and Karuna”

For many hundreds of years, “Loyalty, Forgiveness, Human-heartedness, and Righteousness” have been taken by Chinese as approach to human relations. Among them, “Human-heartedness” is the basic characteristic of man which entails love towards other human beings. Upon Buddhism’s transmission to China, the “Great Metta and Great Karuna” concept of Bodhisattva strengthened the traditional “Human-heartedness” thinking. The Nāgārjuna Bodhisattva defined “Metta” as “Loving care” and “Karuna” as “Mercifulness”, while advocating that all beings should be treated equally. The “Great Metta” can bring happiness and the “Great Karuna” can remove suffering for all. Actualizing the spirit of metta and karuna is the true way of respecting “human rights”. The disposition of equally treating all beings becomes the sixth Chinese ethnical character, which bears strong significance when the law of the jungle is prevailing in the contemporary world.

Conclusion

Upon its transmission to China in the 1st Century BC, Buddhism blended with the original Confucianism, Taoism and customary rites, and eventually evolved into the “Chinese Buddhism” bearing strong Chinese ethnical character and becoming an inseparable living component of the Chinese culture. Rulers of different reigns had supported Confucian culture, even to the extent of suppressing all other schools of thought, with a view to protecting the feudal system and strengthening their ruling hierarchies. Nonetheless, Buddhism with its profound doctrines, unmatched philosophical didactics and Buddhist wisdom synergized with other orthodox traditions, and has been instrumental in nurturing the spirit and molding the characteristics of the Chinese race. This has deeply influenced the politics, economy and customs of China.

释健钊

澳门佛教总会理事长