CHAN BUDDHISM AND THE PROPHETIC POEMS OF WILLIAM BLAKE

·期刊原文

CH'AN BUDDHISM AND THE PROPHETIC POEMS OF WILLIAM BLAKE

MARK S. FERRARA

Journal of Chinese Philosophy

Vo.24 1997 PP. 59-73

Copyright @ 1997 by Dialogue Publising Company, Honolulu, Hawaii, U.S.A.

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PP.59

The similarities between William Blake's philosophical
system and that of Buddhism (particularly the Ch'an(a) or Zen
School) are no less than astonishing. One is struck by a
fundamental similitude underlying the teaching of the Ch'an
school and that of Blake's radical epistemology. Scholars are
aware that William Blake (1757-1827) knew the BhagavadGita in
its first English translation by Sir Charles Wilkins (1785).
Blake's A Descriptive Catalogue of Pictures (1809) even has
an entry for a piece called "The Bramins-A Drawing."
Moreover, Kathleen Raine suggests that Blake knew "some of
the Proceedings off the Calcutta Society of Bengal promoted
by Sir William Jones."(1) Further, Blake believed fundamentally
All Religions are One (1788). He wrote, "As all men are alike
(tho, infinitely various) So all Religions & as all similars
have one source."(2) It was also his opinion that"The
philosophy of the east taught the first principles of human
perception."(3)
Although the above constitute enough evidence to suggest
Blake's familiarity with the East (particularly Indian
thinking as found in the Vedic tradition) they do not fully
explain the strange parallelism of thought between the
English poet-painter's mythic philosophy and that of
Mahayanna Buddhism.
A supremely important component of Blake's prophetic
mythological writings, especially Jerusalem (1804-20) and
Milton (1804), is the concept of the Four Zoas. Briefly,
these Four Zoas make up the unified psyche of Albion, the
Universal Man. Each of the Four Zoas represents an aspect of
the personality of Universal Map. Christine Gallant equates
the Four Zoas with the four aspects of the personality in
Jungian psycho-

P.60

logy.Thinking, Feeling, Sensation, and Intuition).(4)
Urizen is the Zoa that most broadly represents the
intellectual faculties. Luvah is the emotional aspect of man.
Tharmas is the essence of the bodily form of the universal
Albion. Urthona is the Zoa most closely associated with the
imagination, which Blake considers the seat of wisdom. In
Blakean mythology, the harmonious integration of the Zoas is
disrupted when Urizen (the intellectual principle) attempts,
and succeeds, in usurping Urthona (the wisdom principle).
Then the zoas begin to fight amongst themselves, as each
tries to function as an autonomous principle apart from the
others.

And the Four Zoas clouded rage East & West & North &
South
They change their situations, in the
Universal Man.
Albion groans, he sees the
Elements divide before his face..
And Urizen assumes the East, Luvah assumes
the South...
And the Four Zoa's who are the Four Eternal
Senses of Man

Urizen, whose original position is in the south, displaces
Luvah in the East. Subsequently, Luvah assumes the southern
position, thus fragmenting the original harmony of the four.
Urizen(the intellect) comes to domininate the psychic
terrain, dividing reality into dualistic qualities. The
senses are darkened, as they are no longer able to perceive
reality as a complex of unified psychic properties.
Blake interprets the rise of Urizen to the fore of
consciousness as the main cause of the loss of "The Divine
Vision," or the vision of the infinite in all things. This
vision is the ability to perceive God, or the ground of
existence, in everything and everywhere. As a result of the
loss of this vision, the intellect that now dominates
perception sees only the ratio between things, for "He who
sees the Infinite in all things sees God. He who sees the
ratio only sees himself."(6)
It is Los, the primary emanation of Urthona (the wisdom
principle), that attempts to restore the dis-integrated
psyche. A well known Blake scholar explains:

P.61

Urezen is the zoa who abstracts the creative
principle and reduces it to a ratio...Los is
the creative principle that raises man's
fallen single vision into total vision of
fourfoldness. He is the visionary process the
visionary eye of a visionary body, the
archetype of the artist prophet. Los acts
against Urizen, whose sole purpose for
existing is to constantly reduce man to the
ratio of things known.(7)

Although Blake's mythic system differs from the Ch'an
tradition, Buddhists generally recognize that the
intellectual faculty in man is something that must be
under-cut in order to properly apprehend the essence of the
teaching.(8) The assumption is not that the intellect is
inherently evil, but that it simply does not know its
proper place. For "Ch'an practice is not simply concerned
with the removal of the discriminative processes of thought
it also involves the positive reinforcement of wholesome
qualities of the mind."(9) That is to say, rationality and
intellection play essential roles in decision making,
planning, envir onment assessment, and such considerations.
However, if the intellect comes to dominate, the field of
consciousness darkens. As D.T. Suzuki rhetorically asks:

Are we not complete in ourselves and each in
himself? Life as it is lived suffices. It is
only when the disquieting intellect steps in
and tries to murder it that we stop to live
and imagine ourselves to be short of or in
something. Let the intellect alone, it has its
usefulness in its proper sphere, but let it
not interfere with the life-stream. If you are
at all tempted to look into it, do so while
letting it flow. The fact of flowing must
under no circumstances be arrested or meddled
with, for the moment your hands are dipped
into it, its transparency is disturbed,it
ceases to reflect your image which you have
had from the very beginning and will continue
to have to the end of time.(10)

P.62

Here, Blake and Ch'an are in full agreement as to the
nature of the intellect. Both see the intellect not as
inherently evil, but as overly active in the normal psyche.
Ch'an, with its characteristic lack of all extraneous
symbolism, points directly to the matter, while Blake employs
a heavily symbolic mythology (perhaps more similar to the
Tibetan tradition) to demonstrate the intellect's aggressive
dominance. Furthermore, both agree that the original nature
of man is pure, and remains so if left alone by the meddling
intellect. The Divine Vision, B1ake maintains, is the natural
prelapsarian state of the integrated psyche in which all the
zoas are harmoniously balanced. The Divine Vision is obscured
from our everyday consciousness because the renegade
intellect (Urizen) can see only the ratio, and not the
infinity that lies just beneath it. "For man has closed
himself up, till he sees all thro' narrow chinks of his
cavern." (11) When the psyche is re-integrated the experience
of infinity is naturally restored; for "the Divine Vision
remains Every-where Forever. ''(12) Kathleen Raine amplifies
this insight:

'Everything that lives is holy' because the divine
spirit in man is the ground, is the place, is the
nature of all existent things when truly
understood. The holiness of life is not something
predicated, as an attribute, but inherent in the
divine nature of the ground.. and [is] in its
essence therefore both living and holy.(13)

Blake's insistence on the originally pure nature of the
mind becomes particularly interesting when compared to the
Ch'an conception of Buddha-nature. A well know koan(l4) asks
the aspirant 'Does a dog have Buddha-nature?' in hopes of
awakening the monk to an awareness of the fundamental nature
of reality. The function of the koan is to "blot out by sheer
force of the will all the discursive traces of intellection
whereby students of Zen prepare their consciousness to be the
proper ground for intuitive knowledge to burst out."(15) Both
terms, The Divine Vision and Buddha-nature, are synonyms for
this ground that is eternal and abiding,

P.63

although this ground is often not recognized as such by our
minds. This is what the monk is asked to recognize, not
intellectually, but intuitively. "The Buddha-nature is a
spontaneous generation in the sense that it is not a product
of intellection, nor of imagination."(l6) Further, that this
primal reality (Buddha-nature) is the ground from which all
"things" spring, means that all things (dharmas) have Buddha
nature.

Reality is all-inclusive, there is nothing
that can be outside of it.Because it is all
inclusive, it is the fullness of things, not a
content free abstraction, as the intellect is
too frequently apt to make it. It is not a
mere aggregate of individual objects, nor is
it something other than the objects. It is not
something that is imposed upon things
stringing them together and holding them
together from the outside. It is the principle
of integration residing inside things and
identical with them(17)

Why then,one might ask, is this primary reality not readily
apparent in our everday life? Both Blakean philosophy and
Buddhism lay the blame, once again, on the intellect. Blake
points out that "reason usurps its place & governs the
unwilling."(18) Ch'an Buddhism has it that:

The intellect, forgetting its own nature and
limitations, persuades itself into thinking
there is an 'I' effecting union with a 'not-I'
and proclaims this 'union' to be a mystic
experience, the whole thing turns topsy-turvy
and a 'I' with all its egocentric impulses
comes to assert itself.(19)

In Blakean mythology, Urizen (the intellect) usurps the
place of Urthona (the wisdom principle), thus creating a
primary bifurcation in consciousness and obscuring the Divine
Vision. For Blake, the loss of the Divine Vision is the root
of all the woes of humankind. When humankind can awake from
the dream of Urizen, we return to our original nature. This
return is a king of reversion back to a unified field of
consciousness.

P.64

Indeed, the restoration of the Divine Vision is the theme of
Blake's three greatest prophetic poems: Jerusalem, Milton,
and The Four Zoas (1797).
Ch'an also suggests that a reversion (or revulsion) is
needed in the deepest seat of consciousness in order to
restore the mind to its original nature. Both Blake and
Buddhism often employ the analogy of awakening as if from a
dream to suggest this reversion in consciousness. That is to
say, a re-orientation of consciousness relegates the
intellect to its proper sphere, thus making possible the
direct apprehension the most fundamental reality. D.T.
Suzuki, in his Studies in the Lankavatara Sutra (an Indian
text of major importance to the Ch'an school), describes this
turning-about in the deepest recesses of consciousness as:

a revulsion toward true perception
(paravritti)...[which] marks the culmination
of the practical psychology of the
Lankavatara, for it is through this fact that
the realization of Pratyatmaryajnanagocara is
possible, and this realization is the central
theme of the discourse...The new orientation
takes place when the ego-centric and
evilcreating discrimination based upon the
dualism of subject and object ceases by the
realization that there is no external world
besides what is perceived within the self; and
this realization is effected by the
cultivation of the intellect known as
non-discriminative and transcendental... This
sudden turning is in a sense re-turning, the
Alaya or Tathagata-garbha returns by this to
its original purity (suddha) happiness (sukha)
and eternal nature which is above pravritti
and nirvritti (rise and disappearance).(20)

There are two pertinent concepts in the above quotation from
Suzuki that have correlates in Blakean philosophy. The first
is the "revulsion toward a true perception." 'True
perception' as it is used here is synomous with Blake's
Divine Vision. The second pertinent concept is that this
revulsion is in a sense a re-turning to the originally pure
nature of the mind. For Blake also, the triumph of Urthona
over Urizen marks a return

P.65

to the fundamentally pure ground of being.
Let us take a closer look at the concept of the Divine
Vision in Blakean Mythology. To recapitulate, the central
discourse of Blake's prophetic writings is the restoration of
the Divine Vision, by means of the reinstatement of Urthona
to his rightful place in the seat of consciousness When
Urthona is restored, reality is no longer perceived in ratio.
No longer are the senses darkened and petrified against the
infinite. William Blake and Ch'an Buddhism suggest that
reality as it appears to our consciousness is, in some
senses, a "reflection" of our psyche. That is, if the mind is
fragmented it can only perceive in terms of ratio. By
contrast, the unified mind perceives a fundamental unity in
multiplicity. In Ch'an thinking this is known as the doctrine
of 'mind-only."(21) In Blakean terms:

Rivers Mountains Cities Villages
All are Humman & when you enter into their
Bosom you bear your Heaven
And Earth & all you behold tho it appears
Without it is Within
In your Imagination of which this
World of Mortality is but a Shadow.(22)

In slightly different terms we read that "If Perceptive
Organs vary: Objects of Perception seem to vary: If the
Perceptive Organs Close: Their Objects seem to close
also."(23) This is why for Blake, "A fool sees not the same
tree as the wise man sees."(24) When perception is cleared of
egoistic and intellectual obstructions, the infinite, that
"which was hid," is once again known. The restoration of the
Divine Vision is equated to the re-unification of the Four
Zoas. When Urizen usurps Urthona, the Zoas cease to operate
in conjunction with each other. The result is the loss of the
Divine Vision. The re-unification of the Zoas is tantamount
to the recovery of this lost vision. It is Los, the emanation
of the Urthona principle, who struggles to bring the
rebellious Zoas back to their proper spheres. Los is the
"fiery prophet" of the wisdom principle (Urthona)

P.66

and the rightful seat of consciousness. Urthona is both
wisdom and imagination, for Blake. Once one remembers his
dual vocation as poet and painter, it is perfectly
understandable that imagination should be equated with
wisdom.
However, Ch'an equates imagination with delusion, which
arises out of the habit energy of the mind. Although Ch'an
Buddhism's use of the term imagination seems to be a
contradiction of Blake's use of the term, the problem is a
difference in terminology, rather than philosophy. For
Imagination is in Blakean philosophy the anti-thesis of
delusion. He writes in his annotations to Wordsworth's poems:
"One Power alone makes a Poet.-Imagination, The Divine
Vision."(25) Thus Imagination and The Divine Vision are
synonymous terms for the wisdom principle, rather than the
opposition of truth and fancy. The Ch'an school of Buddhism
recognizes Prajna as the wisdom principle. Thus both Blake
and the Ch'an tradition recognize wisdom (Urthona and Prajna
respectively) as the rightful seat of consciousness. Suzuki
explains the Ch'an concept of Prajna in his Essays in Zen
Buddhism: First Series:

It was the presence in every individual of a
faculty designated by the Mahayanist as
Prajna. This was the first principle that made
Enlightenment possible in us as well as in the
Buddha. Without Prajna there could be no
Enlightenment, which was the highest principle
in our possession...Enlightenment consisted in
personally realizing the truth, ultimate and
absolute and capable of affirmation. Thus we
are all Bodhisattvas now, beings of
Enlightenment, if not in actuality, then
potentially. Bodhisattvas are also
Prajna-sattvas, as we are universally endowed
with Prajna, when fully and truly operating,
will realize in us Enlightenment...(26)

Here two truths are observed in the Buddhist tradition;
the first is demonstrated in Suzuki's correlation of Prajna
with Enlightenment, and that it is an active principle
capable of affirmation. The second important

P.67

feature of this passage is the implication that all people
possess the quality of Enlightenment, but may not have
actualized it. "Hence the Mahayana doctrine that all beings,
sentient or nonsentient, are endowed with the Buddha-nature,
and that our minds are the Buddha-mind..."(27) Here is Prajna
extended to its fullest potential.
The question then naturally arises: If Prajna and The
Divine Vision are the same principle of wisdom operating in
two different systems, and Prajna facilitates the realization
of Enlightenment, do these truths correlate The Divine Vision
in Blakean philosophy with Enlightenment, as Buddhists use
the term? In order to answer this question, let us take a
closer look at each of these important concepts.
The restoration of The Divine Vision is the concluding
action of the three major Blakean prophecies: Milton,
Jerusalem. and The Four Zoas. As such, we cannot underrate
the importance of The Divine Vision. Blake equates it with
awakening, affirmation, and the ability to perceive the
infinite in all things. It has been said the The Divine
Vision is restored when The Four Zoas are reintegrated. This
means that Urthona (wisdom) once again becomes the governing
principle of consciousness; and further, that the remaining
three Zoas harmoniously follow the edicts of Urthona. Here
there is a marked similarity with C. G. Jung's psychology of
Integration. According to Jung, 'Integration...

...is an act of self-recollection, a gathering
together of what is scatered, of all the
things in us that have never been properly
related, and coming to terms with oneself with
a view of
achieving full consciousness.(28)

The re-unification (or 'gathering together') of The Four
Zoas is also for Blake the means for achieving full
consciousness. This re-unification awakens the sleeper from
the cold dreams of Urizen, restores sensual perception,
exposes the Infinite where there was only finiteness and
ratio. Through the process of self-examination, Blake
proposes that humankind can awaken to Enlightenment.

P.68

All that can be annihilated must be
annihilated...
the Reasoning Power in Man
This is a false Body; an Incrustation over my
immortal
Spirit; a Selfhood, which must be put off &
annihilated always
To cleanse the Face of my Spirit by
Self-examination.(29)

Ch'an Buddhism also recognizes the necessity of
self-examination as a means to the realization of
enlightenment. Self examination culminates in the recovery of
the Self's native unlimitedness, which is then expressed on
the field of perception.

The essential discipline of Zen consists in
emptying the self of all it psychological
contents, in stripping the self of all those
trappings, moral, philosophical, and
spiritual,with which it has adorned itself ever
since the first awakening of consciousness. When
the self thus stands in its native nakedness, it
defies all description.(30)

Further, "The self in its is-ness, pure and simple,is
comparable to a circle without circumference and, therefore,
with its center nowhere-which is everywhere. Or it is like a
zero that is equal to, or rather identical with,
infinity."(31) This Zen analogy of the Self as identical with
infinity is precisely the analogy that Blake uses to describe
the effect of the restoration of The Divine Vision on
consciousness. In a well known passage from Auguries of
Innocence Blake illustrates this profound identification of
Self with infinity:

To see a World in a Grain of Sand
And a Heaven in a Wild Flower
Hold Infinity in the palm of your hand
And Eternity in an hour(32)

It is no coincidence that D. T. Suzuki quotes the very same
passage in his

P.69

Essays in Zen Buddhism: First Series(33) to demonstrate the
fullness of Zen experience. The world is able to be perceived
in a grain of sand because the self, having its center
everywhere, can identify itself in the "Minute Particulars"
of our world. Every encounter becomes a potential for
enlightenment. The self no longer stands against the other,
but rather becomes the other. That is why, for Blake,'The
most sublime act is to set other before you."(34) Further,
this experience (Prajna or The Divine Vision )makes possible
an identification with the most ordinary of things. In Songs
of Expenrience (1794) it is a common fly that Blake
identifies with:

Am not I
a fly like thee?
Or art not thou
A man like me?(35)

In Ch'an Buddhism this identification plays a key role in
shaping the philosophy of the Bodhisattva, and even develops
into the Mahayana doctrine of "mind only'' which is advocated
by the Lankavatara Sutra. This sutra states that "When there
takes place a revulsion at the seat of discrimination by
realizing that external objects are appearances or
manifestations of of one's own mind, then there is
deliverance, which is not annihilation."(36) This revulsion
has been described above as Enlightenment, a recognition of
Prajna(The Divine Vision) in one's own mind. Once external
objects are viewed as manifestations of ones own mind, a
profound idenfification can take place which unifies the once
bifurcated experience that interprets only in terms of
subject and object. Blake and Ch'an both realize this
profound identification as the necessary ground of human
experience. This realization is for the Mahayanist
Enlightenment and for Blake The Divine Vision.
In conclusion, then, we notice that even though Blakean
and Ch'an philosophies differ, a strange parallelism emerges
that defines a purely historical explanation. Although Blake
employs an elaborate system of

P.70

mythological figures to give flight to his thought, his
primary concern is the restoration of The Divine Vision
(Enlightenment) This is clearly the main thrust of his epic
prophetic poems that were painstakingly engraved and
illuminated.
Ch'an Buddhism, although avoiding the use of heavy
symbology, primarily emphasizes the realization of
Enlightenment through the recognition of Prajna, or the
wisdom principle. Ch'an points directly to the matter, being
suspicious of both extraneous symbolism and language. On the
other hand, Blake describes this realization in terms of the
restoration of the Zoa Urthona (the wisdom principle) to the
seat of consciousness. However, both agree that the intellect
is the primary reason for the obscuring of the wisdom
principle.
For those readers who desire further explanation of these
seeming strange parallelisms between Blakean and Ch'an,
consider C. G. Jung's comments as he attempts to explain the
similitude he saw between the Eastern mind and the Western:

[I]t must be pointed out that just as the
human body shows a common anatomy over and
above all racial differences, so, too, the
psyche possesses a common substratum
transcending all differences in culture and
consciousness...This [collective] unconscious
psyche, common to all mankind does not consist
merely of contents capable of becoming
conscious, but of latent dispositions toward
certain identical reactions... This explains
the analogy, sometimes even identity, between
various myth-motifs, and symbols, and the
possibility of human beings making themselves
mutually understood. The various lines of
psychic development start from one common
stock whose roots reach back into all the
strata of the past.(37)

From here it is hardly a giant leap to suggest that Ch'an
Enlightenment and Blake's The Divine Vision are fundamental
and omnipresent experiences (though often obscured) in the
psyche of all human-kind (past and

P.71

present). The concept of Enlightenment can be found in nearly
every religious (and often philosophical) tradition, though
it will be necessarily couched in the symbology and language
of the culture through which the experience comes. Perhaps it
is here that we may come most closely to an explanation of
the similarities between Blakean and Ch'an Buddhist thought.
It may be suggested, then, that Blake experienced
Enlightenment (The Divine Vision) and expressed it in the
symbols and language available to him from his Western
cultural heritage, while Ch'an expresses Enlightenment in the
terms made available in Eastern culture.

Kyungnam University
Masan, South Korea

Notes

1.Raine, Kathleen. 1979. Blake and the New Age. (London:
Beorge Allen & Unwin), p.169.
2.Blake, William. 1988. The Complete Poetry and Prose of
William Blake. Edited by David V. Erdman. Commentary by
Harold Bloom. (New York:Doubleday), p.2.
3.Ibid. p.39
4.Gallant,Christine. 1978. Blake and the Assimilation of Chao
.s (New Jersey: Princeton University Press),p.118.
5.Blake, William. The Complete Poetry and Prose of Wiliam
Blake, p.178.
6.Ibid., p.3.
7.Abrahams,Cecil Anthony. 1978. William Blake's Fourfold
Man.(Bonn:Bouvier Verlag Herber Grundmann),p.31.
8.Walpola Rahula has it that "Nirvana is beyond logic and
reasoning (atakka-vacara). However much we may engage,
often as a vain intellectual pastime, in highly speculative
discussions regarding Nirvana or Ultimate Truth or Reality,
we shall never understand it in that way." Rahula, Walpola.
1959. What the Buddha Taught. (New York: Grove Press, Inc)
,p.43.

P.72

9.Buswell, Robert E. " Ch'an Hermeneutics." Buddhist
Hermeneutics.,edited by Lopez, Donald S., 231-256. (Honolul
u:University of Hawaii Press, 1988), p.240.
10.Suzuki, Teitaro Daisetz. Essays in Zen buddhism. First
Series. 1927.Reprint. (New York" Grove Weidenfield),.
1961,p.19.
11.Blake. William. The Complete Poetry and Prose of William
Blake ,p.39.
12.Ibid.,p.116.
13.Raine, Kathleen. Blake and the New Age, p.29.
14.For a more in-depth discussion of the Koan practice in Zen
see: Dumoulin, Heinrich. 1994. Zen Buddhism: A History
Volume 1. (New York: Simon & Schuster
Macmillan),pp.245-256.
15.Suzuki Teitaro Daisetz. Essays in Zen buddhism: Second
Series. 1933.Reprint. (London:Rider and Company,1950)p.310
16.Ibid.,p.139.
17.Suzuki Teitaro Daisetz. " The Buddhist Conception of
Reality." The Buddha Eye: An Anthology of the Kyoto
School., edited by Frank, Frederick, 89-110. (New
York.Crossroad Publishing Co., 1991)p.99.
18.Blake William. The Complete Poetry and Prose of William
Blake ,p.34.
19.Suzuki Teitaro Daisetz, " The Buddhist Conception of
Reality," p.100.
20.Suzuki,Teitaro Daisetz. Studies in the Lankvatara Sutra.
1930. Reprint. (Taipei: SMC Publishing Inc., 1991.)
p.184-185.
21.This emphasis on "mind-only" eventually developed into the
Wei-Shih(a) or Consciousness-Only school of Buddhism. For
a discussion of this schol in a historical context see:
Wing-Tsit Chan.1963. A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy.
(New Jersey: Princeton University Press),pp.370-395.
22.Blake, William. The Complete Poetry and Prose of William
Blake, p.225.
23.Ibid.,p.177
24.Ibid.,p.35.
25.Ibid.,p.665.
26.Suzuki Teitaro Daisetz. Essays in Zen Buddhism:First
Series,p.64
27.Ibid.,pp.64-65
28.Jung, Carl G. 1958. Psyche and Symbol. Edited by Violet S.
de Laszlo. (New York : Doubleday),p.213
29.Blake, william. The Complete Poetry and Prose of William
Blake ,p.142.
30.Suzuki Teitaro Daisetz. "Self the Unattainable." The
Buddha Eye: An Anthology of the Kyoto School, edited by
Frank, Frederick (New York:

P.73

Crowwroad Publishing Co., 1991),p.15.
31.Ibid., p.16.
32.Blake, William. The Complete Poetry and Prose of William
Blake, p.490.
33.Suzuki, Teitaro Daisetz. Essays in Zen Buddhism: First
Series, p.282
34.Blake, William. The Complete Poetry and Prose of William
Blake , p.36.
35.Ibid., p.23.
36.Suzuki, Teitaro Daisetz. Studies in the Lankvatara Sutra,
p.152
37 Wilhelm, Richard., and Jung C.G., The Secret of the Golden
Flower. 1931. Reprint. (New York: Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich, Inc., 1962), p.87.

Chinese Glossary
a.罥
b.斑醚