Current Western Interest in Zen

·期刊原文

Current Western Interest in Zen

By Van Meter Ames

Philosophy East & West

V. 10 No. 1/2 (1960) pp. 23-33

Copyright 1960 by University of Hawaii Press

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THERE IS A surprising spread of interest in Zen today; also increasing interest in the interest in Zen. People not only want to know more about Zen; they also want to know why so many people want to know about Zen. In the United States there have been articles about Zen in scholarly journals such as Philosophy East and West, as would be expected, but also in such women's magazines as Mademoiselle and Vogue; in popular magazines such as Time, Life, and The New Yorker; also in Art News; and notably in the literary Chicago Review, which had a Zen number (Summer, 1958) that sold three printings. Jokes and cartoons about Zen appear everywhere.

Now that I have returned to the United States after a year in Japan as a Fulbright Professor of Philosophy at the Zen university of Komazawa, I am asked by nearly everyone I meet, "What did you learn about Zen?" And just as Americans want to know what Zen means to the Japanese people, so the Japanese are curious about the sudden and wide response to Zen in America.

In the first place, there has been an increase of interest in religion in general. The terrible experiences of this century, the wars and revolutions, the economic crises and social upheavals, have made people wonder about the fundamental things of life, the meaning of it all. The impact of science and technology upon traditional ways of living, thinking, and feeling has made people seek for some guiding wisdom. The world has been changing so fast and so dangerously that tradition is questioned, distrusted, and often rejected. Young people are rebellious. Unrest, juvenile delinquency, and crime are serious problems. One solution lies in a return to traditional religion and an effort to make it more effective. Membership in churches has grown rapidly in the United States in recent years, and many new churches have been built. Also, the renewed interest in religion has led to a number of books and articles about religion. The interest in Zen is part of this great renewal of interest in religion in general.

In the past, for most people, religion meant their own religion. Other religions were false or inferior. At least, this was the Western attitude. Orientals have been more tolerant and broadminded, the same person seeing no difficulty in participating in mire than one religion. But in the West, during the last hundred years, the scientific study of religion, with the comparison of

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different religions, has led to appreciation of other religions, especially Buddhism. There have been a number of "missionaries in reverse," who took Christianity to the Orient, became acquainted with Buddhism, and brought it back, or their sons did.

So, in addition to so-called seminaries, divinity or theological schools, teaching a form of Christianity or Judaism or some other faith, there have appeared in the West some centers for Oriental religions. Also, there have come to be courses in the scientific or philosophical study of religion, from a more objective and comparative point of view, usually within departments of religion, sometimes developing into independent departments for such study. The scientific study of religion and its history and associations of scholars for this purpose led to the memorable meetings of the Ninth International Congress for the History of Religions, held in Tokyo in the summer of 1958. There have also been the East-West Philosophers' conferences at the University of Hawaii, which have greatly stimulated the study of Oriental religion and philosophy in the West, especially in the United States, leading to new courses in comparative philosophy and religion in many universities. These courses emphasize Oriental thought, including Zen, and have been increasing the emphasis upon Zen in response to the growing interest in it. A number of new books have appeared for use in such courses, and articles related to them. Very influential has been F. S. C. Northrop's The Meeting of East and West,[1] which acknowledges indebtedness to the First East-West Philosophers' Conference, held at the University of Hawaii in 1939, mentioning in particular the distinguished Japanese scholar of Buddhism, Junjiro Takakusu. It is interesting that Northrop barely mentions Zen in that book and does not refer to Daisetz T. Suzuki, although he presented a paper, "An Interpretation of Zen Experience," for the conference, which was included in the volume of proceedings of that first conference, Philosophy--East and West.[2] Northrop's omission of Suzuki and his failure to devote mote than a single line to Zen in a large book on East and West would not have happened if Zen had been as much in mind 14 years ago as it is now.

Kaiten Nukariya's The Religion of the Samurai[3] was published in London in 1913; The Spirit of Zen[4] by Alan Watts appeared in 1936; and Kazuko Okakura's The Book of Tea,[5] which greatly honors Zen, had come out in 1906. It was Suzuki's books which finally made the West wake up to Zen. Books he had published in English before 1940 were all out of print at that　

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date, or were destroyed in the Tokyo fire of 1945. In 1946, Christmas Humphreys (as he tells in the Foreword to later editions of the Suzuki volumes ) arranged with the author for the Buddhist Society of London and Rider & Co.to bring out a uniform edition of the works of Suzuki, including new ones written during World War II.[6] The popularity of these volumes in American printings led in 1956 to a paperback volume of his selected writings under the title of Zen Buddhism.[7] In September, 1959, a paperback edition of The Way of Zen[8] by Alan Watts was published. So, in the last few years, Zen has spread from the knowledge of a few scholars in the West, not into common knowledge, but into the range of common curiosity.

Continuing and growing scholarly attention to Suzuki has certainly had something to do with this. In the volume Essays in East-West Philosophy[9] reporting the Second East-West Philosophers' Conference, held in Hawaii in 1949, the contribution by Suzuki comes first. The journal Philosophy East and West has, from its first number in 1951, carried articles about and by Suzuki. At the Third East-West Philosophers' Conference in the summer of 1959, also in Hawaii, he participated again, presented a technical paper to the conference, gave an enthusiastically received public lecture to an overflow audience, and was the recipient of an honorary degree from the University of Hawaii. It is certain that he will figure prominently in the published results of this conference. The Zen "boom" is on. Northrop himself declared at this conference that what the world needs is Jefferson and Zen.

Still, it needs to be explained why both scholarly and popular attention to Zen should have taken on the present proportions. In Japan, the adherents of Zen have been relatively few, among the court, the samurai, the professional classes capable of self-reliance, in contrast to the followers of popular forms of Buddhism, who have wanted a savior-religion instead of one requiring them to "save" themselves. But the influence of Zen in Japan has been out of all proportion to the relatively small number of its members, because of the popularity of the arts reaching out from Zen temples through the tea ceremony. This ceremony has had an important place in Japanese education, taking the strenuous practice of Zen, softening and socializing it so that it can be widely enjoyed by friends gathering to share a mild degree of the aesthetic, moral, and religious benefit of quiet sitting.

In America, there is no such custom unconsciously inculcating the spirit of Zen. There the response to Zen must come first through hearing and read-

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ing about it as something new and strange. But this makes for more consciousness of Zen, more conversation and thought about it, throughout the population of the United States than in Japan, where there seems to be general indifference to it, except as it is infused in the arts and customs of the people so natively and naturally as scarcely to be noticed. The young people of Japan of college age appear indifferent to Zen as to religion in general, hardly aware of what Zen is and not caring, even when it means something to their Parents. In America, it is more likely the young who know about Zen or are curious about it--not the majority but the hundreds of thousands who now go to college and who come from all walks of life. The young, who are learning, and also their elders, who like to keep informed in surprising numbers, feel that there is something in Zen which is fresh and present and has a future, in spite of being old an the other side of the world. There is a feeling that in Zen may be found what is needed in addition to science and technology.

The speed and specialization of modern living and the uncertainty of international relations, accounting for the inability of the young to see their way ahead and plan for the future, make Zen enticing as a way of living in the present without worrying about what is coming. The difficulty of thinking things out makes the intuitive quality of Zen alluring. There is danger in the retreat from :he intellectual to the intuitive, to the irrational, but it seems worth the risk. And it also seems that returning to a more instinctive, nonreflective, immediate level of experience can have a therapeutic effect. The danger of overdoing this is real. But Zen holds the assurance that a person who can get down to the firm foundations of his being can then rise again to intellectual effort, while keeping the calm of not-thinking.

Young Americans may not realize that the congeniality of Zen may be explained to some extent by its kinship with indigenous American thought and feeling, as it has been expressed by Emerson with his feeling for the here and now, by Thoreau in his appreciation of Nature and the healing in contemplating her woods and streams and changing seasons, by William James in his praise of "pure experience," and by John Dewey's stress upon "immediate experience" and his recognition of the importance of first-hand doing and undergoing. Dewey, the centennial of whose birth was celebrated in 1959, in his book on Art as Experience[10] reaffirms the continuity of the most refined and reflective levels of life with the basic relation of the live creature to the environment, and of man to the rhythm of daily living. For Dewey, the thinking that men do, with all their elaboration of abstractions in scientific discourse, makes sense and has point only as derived from primary every-　

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day experience. Dewey's appreciation of the immediate and aesthetic quality of the basic activities and relationships from which all the heights and flights are derived is deep in the American grain. Zen, so strange and exotic at first, can be a new name for American wisdom itself. For Dewey, as for Suzuki and Hoseki Shin'ichi Hisamatsu, art is a way of reminding people of the values which are already there in ordinary living.

But it helps Americans to learn this lesson again from the East, to be reminded afresh that what is high is here, that what is most holy is most human --if we can so purify the mind and simplify the view as to see what is there around us. The refreshment and reassurance which result can be like a new birth. Then Americans can learn from Zen what some of their own teachers have taught them: to trust themselves, to be at home in their world, and to have confidence that they can solve their problems, without worrying about theological questions and metaphysical puzzles. The Zen attitude toward death, accepting it as a natural part of life, nothing to worry about any more than about living, is wholesome and healing. The surprising, energizing force of Zen is in combining the acceptance and calm of the Arhat ideal with the reforming zeal of the Bodhisattva ideal, which includes in appreciation of the values already present in the world the need to make them more available to everyone. The ideal of saving all beings fits in Zen with joy in the world as it is. If there is suffering, pain, ugliness, there is the strength to bear them, and there is the moral value of doing what can be done about them, with the readiness and fearlessness of the samurai, who could keep in the face of conflict and death the calm of meditation, of taking tea, and of composing poetry. The Zen blend of quiet and action, of serenity and vitality, of self-sufficiency and service, of discipline and emancipation, of calm and compassion, comes close to what Americans need and admire.

Even the psychological value of physiological adjustment, which is attained through zazen (Zen meditation practice),was recognized by Dewey through Dr. F. M. Alexander, who taught him a posture and a way of breathing which enabled Dewey to work at his desk and to carry on his life more comfortably and effectively. The journal Psychologia,[11] edited by Professor Koji Sate at Kyoto University, has articles by himself and others on the psychotherapeutic implications of Zen, showing how the wisdom of Zen is corroborated in the light of modern scientific studies in the field of mental health. The Zen ideal of relaxation with alertness, its acceptance of the facts and realities of life along with social concern to "enter the city with bliss-bestowing hands," recommends Zen to psychiatrists and psychoanalysts both in Japan and in the

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West. C. G. Jung has long been interested in it, and now he has much company.

Not only is Zen recognized scientifically for its pre-scientific value--Zen itself, along with its intuitiveness, has also used logic, and some of its exponents assert its receptiveness to scientific procedure. This strain in Zen is relatively unknown in the West because it pertains more to the Soto school than to the Rinse school, which is so well represented by Suzuki in English that he has almost made English another Zen language, from which some of his writing has to be translated into Japanese. Soot, has no Suzuki. But Professor Reiho Masunaga has begun to publish in English[12] and will make more familiar the fact that Zen has a place for logic and argument as well as for silence and satori (awakening)--in contrast to Rinzai, which sometimes exaggerates the satori event, in dualistic contrast to ordinary experience, as sudden crisis following upon "great doubt" or "great death," as in the Gakudo-Dojyo (Association for Self-Awakening), a group of followers of Hisamatsu in Kyoto. Masunaga, following Master Dogen, prefers to think of a gradual, life-long realization which need not go through such a violent conversion-experience. This less dramatic view is closer to the common-sense approach which much of American religion has inherited from John Locke. The koan (irrational Zen problem) may alienate Americans, although it can fascinate them. The Soto detachment from the koan goes with caution against overemphasis upon seeking satori, because this can spoil the "purposeless" or intrinsic value of living in the here and now, whether in meditation or in daily activity. Rinzai people will agree that seeking should not be allowed to interfere with being, but feel that the koan is necessary to meditation, and insist that Soto people have used the koan in the past, and need to have some substitute for it even now.

It is not necessary for Westerners to be aware of any difference between Soto) and Rinzai, but it helps the current interest in Zen to discover that there are differences, depths, and nuances in Zen which do not appear at first. There is always more to learn and ask about Zen, and questions about Zen press upon visitors to and from Japan, whether tourists or scholars. More than half a hundred Fulbright grantees (students and professors) go to Japan from the United States and as many go from Japan to the United States each year. These people may not have been interested in Zen, but they, and their accompanying wives and children, find it necessary to become informed about it in order to answer the questions about Zen that Americans eagerly ask. Not only Fulbrighters but grantees of various Foundations have the same experience when they go to or come back from Japan.

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Meanwhile a growing number of Westerners are going beyond asking and reading about Zen to practicing zazen and even living in a monastery. In response to a growing demand, special arrangements are being developed to facilitate the study and practice of Zen by foreigners, for instance, with the English-speaking Abbot Sohaku Ogata at Chotokuin in Shokokuji and with Mrs. Ruth Fuller Sasaki at Ryosen-an in Daitokuji in Kyoto. Even when not carried far, some study and practice of Zen in the traditional setting inevitably adds to the Zen influence in the West when the visitor goes home, even if he only talks about it with friends. It is likely that he will also lecture and write. People will come to him, not only for what he says, but eager to sense, if they can, what difference his closer experience of Zen has made in what he is.

The secret of the fascination of Zen lies in its combination of the intellectual and the intuitive, or, rather, in its intellectual justification of the intuitive. This justification is conveyed most subtly and irresistibly through art, through all the traditional arts of Japan. Hence, the response to Zen in the West does not depend so much upon studying it as in appreciating the artistic heritage of Japan as it emanates from Zen. This has been discussed delightfully by Suzuki in his book on Zen Buddhism and its Influence on Japanese Culture,[13] now reissued as Zen and Japanese Culture.[14] Hisamatsu's Zen to Bijutsu ("Zen and Fine Arts"),[15] when the English translation appears, will also show the West how much Zen is in Japanese art. Many books and articles in English are already doing this, including Okakura's The Book of Tea, handsomely reissued in 1956.[16]

The appeal of art is international and almost irresistible. Back of it in Japan is the Zen temple with tea. Out from the temple and tea have gone the tea ceremony with its architecture, gardens, pottery, poetry, painting, flower arranging, and the test. Not only contemporary Japanese artists, such as Shiko Munakata, who is well known in the West, and Mrs. Fujio Yoshida, but also the French painter Braque and the American composer John Cage, have acknowledged the influence of Zen. Then there are the "beat" writers of the San Francisco school, who feel indebted to Suzuki. He himself, in an article, "Zen in the Modern World," in the Japan Quarterly,[17] says of their movement: "There is no doubt that Zen is in some way responsible for it." While they ate too restless and self-concerned to have attained Zen, their non-conformism and independence, their search for a free and full way of

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living, and the fact that they feel a kinship with Zen all suggest that they are on the way to it.

Suzuki writes affectionately of the Zen monk Ryokwan of the Soto, school, who was a lunatic and "big fool" as well as poet and calligrapher,[18] and it seems that Suzuki himself added "Daisetz" to his own name, meaning "Big Fool," which is close to what the term "beat" means. It is a rejection of the conventional in favor of the vital, the natural, the spontaneous. "Ryokwan, the lover of trees, was also a great friend of the louse, perhaps also of the flea, of the mosquito, etc."[19] He sang of his tatters, of picking up food where he could, meditating in the moonlight all night, forgetting to go home, and living idiotically.[20] Jack Kerouac's The Dharma Bums[21] sounds in its very title like the same outlook.

But Zen, along with what the "beat" like, in emancipation from convention, has strenuous discipline and monastic rules. How fundamental these are to Zen, or whether they have been developed because of accepting the responsibility of training young monks before they can attain the wisdom of mature men, is a question. Zen is complex. It imposes rules and it seeks freedom. There is appeal in both. The Westerner, fearing the routine, the conformism, and standardization of his highly organized and impersonal society, yearns for a freer, more personal and creative way of living, which Zen seems to offer. On the other hand, the very rebelliousness of the young Westerner makes him feel the need of the strict and strenuous life of Zen training. Again, the demands and threats of modern life often seem too much for human intelligence. So, there is a yearning for a way out of thinking or beyond problem-solving. This makes Zen meditation, the emptying of the mind of worry and turmoil, attractive. To reach Nothingness is appealing.

Yet, the need to be up and doing, too, the feeling that one should do something to help society, finds an answer in Zen, which weds meditative tranquillity to activity, finding in quiet sitting the poise and strength to go out into the daily round as calmly as if still in the temple or its garden.

A Catholic may feel that Zen is close to his own religion in emphasis upon a mysterious ultimate reality which yet is near at hand, in love of ritual, of architecture, chanting, color, and incense, as in the great monastery and temple of Eiheiji or Sojiji, or in the simpler but also impressive morning sec-vice of a small sub-temple at Shokokuji. But a Unitarian, at the opposite pole, may feel close to the reforming, rationalizing spirit of Zen. Then, Zen

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seems to mean a rejection of traditional Buddhism like the Unitarian rejection of traditional Christianity, while at the same time keeping the tradition, to reinterpret it in a more naturalistic and humanistic way, as in Emerson. Again, Zen answers to the impatience with book learning in a world too full of books. "No dependence on words and letters" in Zen answers to the often quoted passage in the Bible: "of making many books there is no end; and much study is a weariness of the flesh."[22] Yet, for one who wants to study, there is no end of unwearied reading to be done in the literature of Zen. There is the retreat into peace and quiet, the rustic poverty of wabi and sabi,[23] as in Thoreau. And there is in Zen the modern need of the ancient Stoic virtue of duty and of finding the refreshment of the forest in the midst of the city. There is also in Zen the ability to accept danger and death without fear, and without any supernatural belief, any hope of another life. There is in Zen the full acceptance of this life here and now as all there is, yet filled with all there could be, for one who is awakened.

No doubt, the popular appeal of Zen in the West often rests upon misunderstanding, upon the lure of the exotic. People who resent the scientific and technological side of modern life, as threatening to personal values, are drawn to Zen as they have been to existentialism and to various strange cults and isms which glorify the irrational. When such people lose interest in their inherited religion, because it seems outworn or just too familiar, too sensible, and always the same, and yet retain a yearning for a vision, for an escape, a saving secret, they welcome a wisdom of the mysterious East which has the setting, the trappings, all the aura and oracles they could want. It speaks in enigmas, it offers insoluble koans, and yet all it asks is quiet sitting. At the same time, those who want a sane and common-sense religion, with no miracles or mystification, also can find what they want in Zen's iconoclastic blasting of superstition, its rejection of the supernatural and transcendent, asking only that men calm themselves and try to do what needs to be done in the daily situations they find themselves in, especially to help others. Then, Zen is felt to answer to the primary religious need to find in the here and now a sense of belonging, of having something to do there, and of being needed by others in their belonging and doing.[24] In contrast to all the dualism of religion in the West, dividing men from their world, from their neighbors, and from themselves, Zen found long ago what the Western psychologists and

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philosophers have been discovering, that religion has its roots in human nature and the human condition. Many Christians are coming to see this and to like it, but many have such otherworldly conceptions of Christianity that they can more easily find in Zen, from the other side of the world, the way to be at home on this side.

Zen has fascination in the West because Zen seems to offer all that is wanted, whatever it is, except mere acceptance of tradition and authority. Zen encourages men to be themselves and to trust themselves in their own Buddha-nature. At the same time, it gives help to those who need help: exercises to take, rituals to perform, books to read, masters to consult. Mystics can find mysticism in Zen. The unmystical find plain sense and sanity. The theological find God in Zen Nothingness. The untheological find nothing in the Nothingness of Zen beyond what is in man and his world, and find that enough. This refusal to identify religion with theology, this willingness to relate religion to what is accessible to human experience, to sense and science, may be a new form of religion in the West, but it is old in Japan. It is there in Zen, for those who have enough Zen to realize it. Those who do not quite realize it are also reached by Zen in its architecture, its gardens, its poetry and enigmatic sayings, its scriptures and chanting, its robes, and rules, and incense.

The more Zen one has, the less need there is for all these things, though they may still be used and enjoyed. But there will then be a sense of freedom in the midst of them, a sense of humor that goes back to the relaxed Taoist inheritance of Zen, the cultivation without cultivation, the doing without ado. Whether this is a rejection of Buddhism in the name of Buddhism or a reaffirmation of original Buddhism perhaps does not matter. It is in the spirit and heritage of Zen to believe that it is the secret of the historical Buddha `Saakyamuni, and that in sitting meditation one can share his experience with him, including his great awakening, and thereby feel a deep oneness with him, and with all other men, since human nature is the Buddha-nature. Then,

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having overcome littleness and separateness, relieved of egoism, one can live free and unafraid, going on with life naturally, going out to others, working with them and for them, with a joyful mastery of life.

The best evidence that this is possible, and the real source of the Zen "boom," is in the character and quality of the Zen masters and teachers themselves, and of people who have learned from them, as one may meet them in Japan. Their strength and gentleness, their intelligence and feeling, their modesty and self-respect, their love of life and of other people--this is in Suzuki and his books, as in the men of Engakuji and Sojiji, Eiheiji and Myoshinji, Nanzenji, Shokokuji, Daitokuji, and the rest.

NOTES
1. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1946.

2. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 1944.

3. London: Luzac & Co., 1913.

4. London: John Murray. 1936.

5. New York: Dodd. Mead and Company. 1906.

6. Among the books included in this series were: Essays in Zen Buddhism (First. Second. and Third Series), Introduction to Zen Buddhism. Manual of Zen Buddhism. The Zen Doctrine of No-Mind, and Living by Zen.

7. William Barrett, ed.. Anchor Books (New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc.. 1956).

8. Mentor Books (New York: New American Library. 1959).

9. Charles A. Moore. ed. (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1951).

10. New York: Minton. Balch & Co..1934. Now available in paperback edition, Capricorn Series (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1959).

11. Vol. I, No. 4 (December, 1958).

12. The Soto Approach to Zen (Tokyo. Layman Buddhist Society Press [Zaike bukkyo kyokai], 1958).

13. Kyoto: The Eastern Buddhist Society (Otani Buddhist College). 1938.

14. New York: Pantheon Books Inc., 1959.

15. Kyoto: Bokubi-sha, 1958. Title on cover and on title page is in Japanese and English, but text is in Japanese.

16. Rutland, Vt.. and Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle Co.. 1956.

17. Vol. V. No. 4 (October-December, 1958), 452-461.

18. Zen Buddhism and Its influence an Japanese Culture, p. 239.

19. Ibid.. p. 247.

20. Ibid., pp. 241-242.

21. New York: The Viking Press, Inc., 1958.

22. Ecclesiastes 12:12.

23. Wabi and sabi, as interpreted by Suzuki. both came to mean the aesthetic appreciation of simplicity and poverty, sabi applying more objectively to things. wabi more to a way of life. See Suzuki. Zen and Japanese Culture, p. 284.

24. It should be noted that, whereas the ideal for Hiinayaana Buddhism is represented by the Arhat who frees himself by attaining enlightenment. Zen belongs to the Mahaayaana. branch of Buddhism, for which the ideal is the Bodhisattva. who vows to save all beings before saving himself. The first of "The Four Great Vows." recited in every Zen service, is: "However innumerable beings are. I vow to save them." (D. T. Suzuki: Manual of Zen Buddhism [London: Rider & Co.. 1950. 1956. 1957], p. 14.) Hakuin's "Song of Meditation," also regularly used in a Zen service. ends with these lines: "This very earth is the Lotus Land of Purity,/And this body is the body of Buddha" (Ibid., p. 152).
Suzuki quotes from the Lotus Suutra: "As long as there is one single solitary soul not saved. I am coming back to this world to help him. .. A bodhisattva...would see to it that he was not to shun any amount of suffering if it were at all conducive to the general welfare." And Suzuki comments: "Love and compassion..... are the essence of Buddhahood and bodhisattvaship." (D. T. Suzuki. "Lectures on Zen Buddhism." in D. T. Suzuki. Erich Fromm. and Richard De Martino. Zen Buddhism & Psychoanalysis [New York: Harper & Brothers, 1960]. P. 70.)
Professor Reiho Masunaga, in explaining the Bodhisattva ideal of Zen, says: "But it is not enough merely to become enlightened solely for oneself. Man can not separate himself from those around him....The religious man must not stop simply at personal tranquillity; he must seek peace and happiness for all beings." In short. as Masunaga sums it up: "The object. of Zen is to perfect personality through zazen and daily life and to help others'' (The Soto Approach to Zen, pp. 27. 17).

Editor's Note:

This article has previously appeared in Japanese translation in two installments in Daihorin, Volume XXVII, Nos. 3 and 4 (March and April, 1960).