Folklore Concerning Tsong-kha-pa

·期刊原文

Folklore Concerning Tsong-kha-pa

(tales centering on Tibetan Buddhist reformer, 1357-1419, and Taer Temple)

by Lide, Feng, Kevin Stuart

Asian Folklore Studies

Vol.51 No.2 P.p.219-242 Oct 1992

COPYRIGHT Asian Folklore Studies (Japan) 1992

Key words: Tsong-kha-pa -- Gebem Gonba (Taer Temple, Tower Temple)
-- Sakyamuni -- Dalai Lama -- Panchen Lama
MAHAYANA Buddhism was introduced into Tibet in 622 A.D., with a
second introduction occurring in the tenth century. Following the
second introduction it grew in power for 300 years, scoring its
greatest triumph when the Mongol emperor Kublai Khan (1215-1294)
accepted Tibetan Buddhism and named a Buddhist abbot as religious
head and tributary leader of the country. The abbot, in return,
crowned Kublai Khan ruler of the Mongol empire (REESE 1980; 289).
Tsong-kha-pa (Zongkaba) was born in 1357 in what is now Huangzhong
County in Qinghai Province of China. As a child he entered Xiazong
Temple in the present Ping'an County, and later studied at Xiaqiong
Temple in what is now Hualong County. At sixteen he travelled to
Tibet and later, in 1390, began a Buddhist reform movement aimed at
opposing animism and gross Tantric practices, restoring the rules of
celibacy and simplicity, and raising the spiritual level of monks.
Tsong-kha-pa discarded the red robes of the Tibetan monks and
returned to the yellow robes of Gautama Buddha. Hence the name of
the reform movement he began: the Yellow Hat sect (REESE 1980, 289;
Wu 1980, 79). He died in 1419.
This article presents translations of selected folklore accounts on
Tsong-kha-pa. The tales were recorded in 1989 by HAN and MA (1990)
in the region of the great monastery founded on the site of
Tsong-kha-pa's birth, known in Tibetan as Gebem Gonba (Lamasery of
100,000 images; in Mongolian, Kumbum; in Chinese, Taersi [Lamasery
of eight pagodas]). The accounts are those of the Tibetans, Han ,
Monguors (Tu), Mongolians, and Hui who live in this area.[1] Since
few professional storytellers remain today, the tales are told by
temple lamas to their disciples and by old people to children as
entertainment. This collection is, to our knowledge, the only
significant anthology of recently collected folklore on the founder
of the Yellow Hat sect. We chose it in part to demonstrate elements
of folk religion in Tsong-kha-pa's native region.
The first group of tales in Han and Ma's collection deals with
Tsong-kha-pa's life, and these comprise the bulk of the accounts
presented in this article. They begin with the story of his
miraculous birth, accompanied by all manner of auspicious portents.
Tsong-kha-pa confirms his Buddhahood at the tender age of three with
such wonders as leaving his footprints on stone. Having mastered
Buddhist philosophy by the age of sixteen, he sets out to the holy
city of Lhasa, performing along the way such miracles as turning a
pot inside out, transforming earth into food, and turning a river
into ice in the midst of summer. He also displays infinite
compassion for all sentient beings, risking his own life to give his
flesh to a dying lion and his blood to a dying swan.
Once in Lhasa he devotes himself to further refinement of his own
interpretation of Buddhism, and demonstrates his Buddhahood to the
leaders of the Lamaistic world by performing a series of miracles.
Later, his sense of filial piety is manifested by his sending of a
self-portrait, drawn with his own blood, to his mother. Finally,
just before death, he insures the continuation of his Buddhist
teachings through the designation of two of his students as the
future Dalai and Panchen Lamas.
The second group of tales, of which only the first is included in
this article, deal with Gebem Gonba. A few words on this temple
might be appropriate at this point, considering its importance in
Han and Ma's collection. Gebem Gonba is located near Xining, capital
of Qinghai Province; with more than 400 resident lamas, it ranks as
one of the largest temples of the Yellow Hat sect. It had its
beginnings about one-and-a-half centuries after Tsong-kha-pa's
death, when Lama Rintschen Dson dui dschamtso built cells for
himself and his ten monks. In 1577 a temple was established near a
tower that bad been erected at an unknown date around a tree which,
according to Indian Buddhist tradition, marked the spot of
Tsong-kha-pa's birth. It was here in 1578 that the third Dalai Lama,
Bsod-nams-rgya-mtsho (1543-88), had his historic meeting with Altan
Khan (d. 1583), at which the Mongols embraced the Yellow Hat sect.
It is now an important pilgrimage area and tourist attraction, due
in part to its proximity to Xining (SCHRAM 1957, 25).
Several of Han and Ma's tales deal with the Panchen Lama, who in
more recent times has had a much closer relationship to Gebem Gonba
than to temples in the present Tibet Autonomous Region. The recently
deceased Panchen Lama and the present Dalai Lama were both born in
Qinghai, the former in the present Xunhua Salarzu Autonomous County
and the latter a short distance from Gebem Gonba.
Another group of tales deals with important deities at Gebem Gonba
and the pagodas that stand before the temple complex, while others
relate the origins of the temple ceremonies. The collection
concludes with an account of a visit to Gebem Gonba by the president
of the Republic of China and his wife in the pre-1949 era.
These tales should be seen as bits and pieces of a much larger
universe of folk accounts dealing with Tsong-kha-pa and Gebem Gonba,
and should not be interpreted as the only extant accounts. They
provide valuable insights into the folk religious beliefs of
Tibetans, Monguor, and many Han Chinese living in the Qinghai
countryside, the vast majority of whom, in the late twentieth
century, know little about formal Buddhist theory.
Translator's note
Following the translated passages, the corresponding page numbers in
the original text are noted in parentheses. Brackets within the
passage itself indicate additions by the translator. In their
collection Han and Ma provide only the Chinese transliterations of
the Tibetan, which we have used except in the case of well-known
people and places, where we have tried to provide the accepted
Tibetan versions (we gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Bulou
and Shamba in this). The names of Buddhas and bodhisattvas have been
given in Sanskrit when possible.
The translation follows the original except for occasional editing
to clarify the meaning and eliminate needless repetition of the same
information, e.g., that Tsong-kha-pa founded the Yellow Hat sect. We
have made no attempt to comment on statements in the folktales that
do not accord with the historical record.

TRANSLATION

THE BIRTH OF TSONG-KHA-PA < 1-4 >

The saint [Tsong-kha-pa] was born
on Lianhua Hill in Huangshu Bend at the foot of the Qilian
Mountains, near the present Lushaer in Huangzhong. His parents were
a Tibetan couple, Lubenge and his wife Xiangsaaqie, who lived with
their three children in a black cow hair tent.
Lubenge, an honest and hardworking herdsman, took his animals every
day to graze in the mountains. Xiangsaaqie was warmhearted, helpful
towards her neighbors, and well thought of by all.
Though pregnant with her fourth child, Xiangsaaqie kept busy with
the household work, walking every day at dusk to Haima spring for
water with a wooden pail on her back. When she felt tired on her
return she would rest on a gray boulder. As time passed, the rock
was worn smooth by the rubbing of her bucket. This boulder is now
preserved in Qiqou Hall in Gebem Gonba.
As Xiangsaaqie's belly became increasingly swollen she was forced to
spend most of her time at home. Their yellow cow was also pregnant,
and remained with her when Lubenge went into the mountains with the
other livestock. The cow liked to go to Lianhua Hill every day and
would not return in the evening unless Xiangsaaqie drove it back.
One day Xiangsaaqie went for the yellow cow, but it refused to
return. Just then Xiangsaaqie felt a sharp pain in her belly. As it
became more and more intense she clenched her teeth and rolled in
the grass, sweat streaming from her forehead. The pain made her
faint, and, in a daze, she was conscious of a comforting melody and
fragrant odor. She then beheld a Buddha descending to earth on a
five-colored cloud. When she regained consciousness she saw an
infant boy, crying loudly. As though in a fairy tale, there were
golden rays of light and white clouds in the sky, and the grass
emitted a fragrance.
Xiangsaaqie cut the umbilical cord, wrapped the infant in her fur
coat, and buried the afterbirth where the cow had been. There she
later grew a pipal tree whose leaves bore the images of 100,000
Buddhas.[2] It is said that the two pipals presently at Gebem Gonba
grew from two branches of the original tree; they are regarded as
embodiments of the Dalai and Panchen Lamas, the two outstanding
pupils of Tsong-kha-pa. The trunk of the original tree is now in the
burial tower [of Tsong-kha-pa at the temple].
The baby was exceedingly clever and could talk before his first
birthday. His parents were so delighted with their fourth child that
they named him Luosangzhaba, meaning "kind and wise."
In Tibet at that time there lived a famous lama of the Bka'-brgyud
Buddhist sect named Kar-ma-rol-pavi-rdo-rje. As he chanted
scriptures one day in the chanting hall he heard a celestial melody.
Amazed, he gazed up and saw that beams of light were shining from
every image, illuminating the dim hall. Realizing that a great event
was about to take place, he searched the scriptures and was
delighted to find a prophesy by Manjusri [Wenshu] Boddhisattva: "In
the Northeast, there will be a great Buddhist who shall practise two
important Buddhist doctrines. His name will be Tsong-kha-pa, and, in
the end, he will become the seventh of the 1,000 transformations of
Sakyamuni..."
Why! Tsong-kha-pa was the seventh image of the Buddha and was
incarnated in Tsong-kha-pa at the foot of the Kunlun Mountains and
on the banks of Qinghai Lake [Koko Nor]. Kar-ma realized that this
was an important Buddhist secret that should not be divulged.
Kar-ma visited the area near [his temple] and found the people happy
and their crops flourishing. The weather was clear and temperate,
and everything was bathed in an auspicious atmosphere. Karma,
parting from his fellows with the excuse that he desired to preach
the scriptures, went in search of the clever boy who was to become a
renowned Buddhist. He set out eastward and covered a great distance,
wearing out many pairs of shoes before he reached the area [where
Luosangzhaba lived]. He suffered much in moving his tent here and
there and in visiting many people. At last he reached Lianhua Hill
and pitched his tent nearby. Later, on this site, Zhangfangtai [tent
platform] Village was built.

CONSTRUCTING PAGODAS < 4 >

One day Kar-ma went to Lianhua Hill and saw several children
playing, building pagodas with sheep dung. The older boys, who were
around eight years old, either failed in their attempts or built
pagodas that quickly collapsed. Only a three-year-old boy succeeded,
and his pagodas were beautiful. Kar-ma watched the boys from a
distance and did not disturb them.
Then came a gale that blew the boys' hats away and leaves off the
nearby trees. But the eight pagodas built by the little boy stood
straight. Kar-ma was delighted and thought, "I wonder if this clever
boy is the one I'm looking for?" He decided to test him, reasoning
that if the boy was the reincarnated Buddha he would have
supernatural powers.

FOOTPRINTS ON STONE AND OTHER MIRACLES < 4-6 >

Kar-ma looked about and saw two gray stones nearby. He went over to
a pyramid-shaped one about three chi [one chi=30 cm] long and
stepped on it with one foot, leaving a footprint. The astonished
boys followed suit, but none was able to leave a print. Then
Luosangzhaba came and stood on the stone. Everyone saw four
footprints. The other boys were surprised, and Kar-ma was delighted.

It is said that there was a spring in Huangshu Bend in which lived a
black dragon. When the dragon heard of the boy he was sceptical and
wanted to test him personally. He jumped out of the spring and
turned into a man. Finding Luosangzhaba, he asked him to make
footprints on the stone again. Luosangzhaba complied, adding another
two footprints to the stone. Convinced, the dragon realized that the
boy was not an ordinary mortal. Later, when Dajinwa Hall at Gebem
Gonba was built, the stone with Luosangzhaba's footprints was placed
in the temple hall, the footprints gilded, and the edges of the
prints painted in red. This stone is still there, preserved in
Jiujian Hall.
When Kar-ma saw the footprints left by Luosangzhaba, he knew that
this was the person he was searching for. He decided to give him his
first lesson in Buddhism. Kar-ma approached Luosangzhaba and said,
"Hey, boy! How old are you?"
Luosangzhaba politely replied, "Three years old. I was born in the
Year of the Cock." He added, "Would you please come and sit in our
tent for a while?"
Kar-ma nodded, delighted, and asked the names of the boy's parents.
Luosangzhaba told him. He then asked where their tent was.
Luosangzhaba said that it had been in Huangshu Bend but that they
had moved to Lianhua Hill the year before. Kar-ma followed him to
the tent [located near the present north end of Gebem Gonba]. Seeing
it empty, Kar-ma asked the boy where his parents were.
Luosangzhaba answered that his father had gone for "illness" and his
mother had gone for "eyes." Kar-ma thought there must be some hidden
meaning in these words. As he was about to probe further, Lubenge
and Xiangsaaqie returned, the former wearing an anguished expression
and the latter holding a candle. Kar-ma then understood. Looking for
"illness" meant encountering trouble, and looking for "eyes" meant
searching for a candle. Kar-ma asked the boy's age and exact time of
birth, then concluded, "Your Luosangzhaba is an important figure. He
will go to Tibet and be renowned as a second Buddha."
Delighted, the couple lit cypress needles and lamps and kowtowed to
show thanks to Buddha. Four years later, Kar-ma took Luosangzhaba to
Xiaqiong Temple [in the present Hualong County],[3] where he became
a lama and was given the name Kun-dgav-snying-po. Since he was born
in Tsong-kha, between Qinghai Lake and the present Huangzhong
County, he was called Tsong-kha-pa, meaning "the famous master of
Tsong-kha."
His hair, cut off when he became a lama and scattered on the cliff
near the temple, later grew into many luxuriant cypress trees.
Cypress twigs were once taken from these trees and burnt. To
everyone's surprise, the smell was that of burning hair rather than
of cypress. This convinced the temple lamas that Tsong-kha-pa was
unusual.
Don-grub-rin-chen Living Buddha thought highly of Tsong-kha-pa and
helped him in his studies. Tsong-kha-pa was clever and hardworking,
and by the age of eleven had mastered Buddhist philosophy.

THE MING EMPEROR DREAMS OF TSONG-KHA-PA < 7-8 >

One day the first emperor of the Ming had a dream in which he beheld
a striking colorful cloud emerging in the Kunlun Mountains, lighting
up the west like daylight. The next morning, still thinking of this
dream, he summoned Liu Baiwen and asked him about the dream.
Liu Baiwen was a well-known hero who had helped the emperor
establish his empire. He was adept at foretelling events as much as
500 years into the future and was regarded in the same way as Zhuge
Liang of the Three Kingdoms period and Weizheng of the Tang.
After hearing the emperor's account of his dream, Liu left and
briefly examined the western horizon. He then returned and said,
"Your majesty, a great person has risen in the west."
Frightened, the emperor replied, "How dangerous. I established the
empire so there should not be another great man. Take 300,000 men
and go kill him." After reexamining the west and then divining, Liu
smiled and said, "The great man in the west is already eleven years
old and is an incarnation of Sakyamuni. In my opinion, he poses no
threat to your empire. Rather, this is a propitious portent."
Though relieved, the emperor was still curious about this great man
and said, "Why should a great man appear in the western wilderness?"

Liu laughed and said, "You are mistaken. The west is wild, but it is
full of treasures. Its lotus-shaped mountains are beautiful in every
season: white as crystal in winter, green as jade in summer, yellow
as gold in autumn, and as colorful as agate in spring. It resembles
the place where Sakyamuni was born, so it is possible for a great
man to rise there."
The emperor thought, then said, "Well, I will leave him alone since
he is the reincarnation of Sakyamuni. Still, I want you to cut the
dragon connection [i.e., insure that a dragon (emperor) does not
arise] in the Kunlun Mountains."
Several days later, Liu set out to cut the connection. Today, there
are still some mounds on mountains in this area built by Liu to
suppress the dragon of the Kunlun Mountains.

LEAVING FOR TIBET < 8-9 >

At the age of sixteen, Tsong-kha-pa, by then well versed in all the
elementary scriptures, informed his master that he wished to go to
Tibet for further study. Realizing that he was determined,
Don-grub-rin-chen encouraged him and gave him money for his trip. As
Tsong-kha-pa was about to leave, Don-grub-rin-chen held his hands
tightly, tears in his eyes, and said, "Remember to look back when
you reach that large tree not far from here."
Nodding, Tsong-kha-pa promised. Then they parted and Tsong-kha-pa
set out from the temple gate, murmuring scriptures. But he forgot to
look back when he was under the large tree. Don-grub-rin-chen heaved
a sigh and said sorrowfully, "Oh! He will never return."
As Don-grub-rin-chen returned to the temple, he was gripped by
nostalgia as he viewed the hall where they had chanted together. He
felt so lonely that he could not but weep, and tears streamed down
his face. Distressed by these memories, he flung a handful of ash at
a building and shouted, "What's the use of all of this, now that my
pupil will not return?"
Barely had he finished than, with a great crack, the building's
beams and rafters flew away, one by one. When he realized what was
happening, he only had time to throw himself upon the final beam.
Thus only the last beam remained, and today is preserved in the hall
where Tsong-kha-pa studied.

TURNING A POT INSIDE OUT < 9-10 >

Tsong-kha-pa passed through many mountains in Sichuan. He wore out
many pairs of shoes, and was forced at last to tie a wooden board to
the bottom of each foot. Later, it was impossible to find such
boards and he walked barefoot. The frame on his shoulders holding
scriptures injured him, and for a time he had to live on snow when
he ran out of food.
One day he came to a tent to beg, but the lady of the tent only had
a little milk left in a pot. Tsong-kha-pa said that it would be nice
if she would let him lick the pot. She jokingly said, "You must
first turn the pot inside out." Though she was joking, Tsong-kha-pa
was famished and turned the pot inside out. Surprised, the woman
thought, "He turned the pot inside out. Is he a Living Buddha?" She
then went inside her tent and came out with butter and roasted
barley. But by this time he was far away.
He walked on, and, feeling hungry and exhausted, picked up a handful
of earth at the base of a cliff. To his amazement, the earth tasted
like roasted flour and butter. Ever since, those who pass this place
eat some earth at the cliff's foot and it still tastes like butter
and roasted flour.
The weather was unbearably dry and hot, and Tsong-kha-pa felt
thirsty. Finding an old woman weeding a field, he went over and
said, "Granny, please favor me with some water."
Shaking an empty pot, she said, "Sorry, there's no water left." But
seeing the poor boy dying of thirst, she offered to fetch some from
her home. A short while later she returned with a pot of water.
Tsong-kha-pa drank his fill and left.
When the old woman turned to resume her weeding, she was surprised
to find that not a single weed remained in the field that just
before had been covered with them (for she was too old to take good
care of her crops). She thought that this might have been done by
the young lama, and guessed that he would be a great man when he
became an adult.

SAVING A SWAN WITH HIS BLOOD < 11 >

One windy day he reached a vast expanse of desert. The wind was
blowing so hard that it was difficult for him to keep his eyes open.
He had had nothing to drink in three days. Then a flock of swans
flew overhead and a small one fell earthward. He walked over, picked
it up, examined it, and realized that the small swan was also dying
of thirst. Staring at him, the bird cried desperately as though
pleading for water.
Tsong-kha-pa wished to save the bird, but the only thing he had to
give it was some of his own blood. He bit his finger and, drop by
drop, gave his blood to the swan. After a time the swan regained its
strength and flew away. But Tsong-kha-pa fainted because he had been
thirsty for a long time and had lost much blood.
At this time, Avalokitesvara [Guanyin] Boddhisattva was reposing on
a lotus-shaped sedan on Putao Mountain. Suddenly aware, she opened
her eyes and looked to the west. Seeing Tsong-kha-pa in difficulty,
she dashed to him on a five-colored cloud, spread rain with a willow
twig, and saved him. The desert regained life. The next morning, as
the morning sun dyed the snow-topped mountains, grass budded in the
desert.

TESTED BY A BEAUTIFUL GIRL < 11-13 >

Tsong-kha-pa came to a mountain with many cliffs. It was a beautiful
place, with all sorts of trees covering the slopes, creeks
meandering through the woods, and verdant grass along the stream
banks. While enjoying the view, a beautiful young girl appeared on a
path leading to the mountaintop. She walked straight towards
Tsong-kha-pa. As he stared at her, she continued to walk towards
him. He stepped back and asked, "Where are you from? Why are you in
such a hurry?"
As he listened [to her answer], he examined her and saw that she was
charmingly attractive, with large eyes, red lips, and long hair
streaming to her shoulders. He shifted his gaze and tried to walk
around her. She blocked his path whenever he tried to pass. At a
loss, he covered his face with his hands.
"My reverence!" she said shyly, glancing at him, her face red. "You
are young and I am in my girlhood. We are a born couple. Why do you
torture yourself with that kasaya?"
Surprised, Tsong-kha-pa solemnly said, "I have relinquished all
worldly desire, for I desire only to improve Buddhism. I won't do as
you suggest."
Again he tried to pass her but she would not let him. Time
passed--it was now evening and the moon rose above East Mountain.
The girl approached and Tsong-kha-pa retreated. Suddenly he fell and
she rushed at him. He got up and began running. She chased him back
down the path. Just when she was about to catch him a deep abyss
appeared between them. It was impossible for the girl to cross and
Tsong-kha-pa was at last rid of her. But he was afraid that she
might still follow him and set out immediately under the moonlight.
Late that night, the mountains were bleak. A wolf's howl added to
the mountain's terror. Afraid to continue, he climbed up a cliff to
a cave and soon fell asleep.

SAVING A LION WITH FLESH FROM HIS LEG < 13-14 >

Tsong-kha-pa woke to find it late morning. He looked around and
noted the beauty of the valley that had seemed so terrible the night
before. The valley was covered with grass, green trees, and various
colored flowers. Birds sang in the trees and creeks glinted down
cliffs. Amazed, he suddenly noticed a lion chasing a Mongolian
gazelle. The agile gazelle climbed the steep cliff from the grassy
slope. The lion, not wanting to give up, followed it up the cliff.
The path was too narrow for the lion and halfway up it slipped and
fell. One of the lion's forelegs was broken and it bled from its
nose and mouth. Feeling compassion, Tsong-kha-pa descended the slope
and wrapped the lion's broken foreleg with his kasaya.
Thinking that the wounded lion might not survive without care, he
decided to stay with it until it recovered. He suffered much in
three days of watching the lion. After some time, the lion roared in
hunger as though pleading for something to eat. Tsong-kha-pa had not
even a crumb of food in his bag and could not take life for food.
How could he find something for the lion to eat? At last he decided
to feed his own flesh to the lion. He offered his thigh to the lion,
but the lion refused it. Tsong-kha-pa left, found a sharp rock, and
cut flesh from his thigh. He returned to the lion and fed it this
flesh. Thus the lion was saved, but Tsong-kha-pa lost much blood and
suffered pain. He scooped up a handful of earth at the base of the
cliff and applied it to his wound. Magically, the earth not only
stanched his bleeding but also alleviated his pain. He stayed at the
base of the cliff for three days before continuing westward.

MAKING AN ICE BRIDGE < 14-15 >
One day he was confronted with a wide, violently surging river. It
was impossible for him to cross, so he walked upstream. When he
reached a place where the river was broad and shallow, he saw a man
on a sheepskin raft. Delighted, he asked to be rowed across. The
man, seeing Tsong-kha-pa's shabby clothes, said coldly, "Do you have
any money?"
"I'm a lama and have no money."
"What is that in your case?"
"Scriptures."
"Humph!" said the man disdainfully, and rowed the raft across the
river.
Tsong-kha-pa sighed, turned, and went into a cave in a nearby cliff.
There he sat cross-legged and began chanting. Within twenty-four
hours the weather turned frigid, as though in the depths of winter.
Tsong-kha-pa continued chanting. The next day the sky was shrouded
in black clouds and it began snowing. On the third day, thick ice
covered the river. Tsong-kha-pa collected his scriptures and easily
crossed the river. The sky cleared, it turned warm, and the ice soon
thawed.
When those living along the river learned of this, they realized
that the young lama had supernatural powers and they kowtowed to
him, asking for blessings. Tsong-kha-pa said kindly, "I know that
the business of operating a boat is difficult. I only hope that when
you meet other lamas traveling to Tibet, you will help them." Then
he resumed his journey. From that time on the river boatmen never
charged lamas fees for crossing the river.

FACING DANGER TO SAVE SHEPHERDS < 15-17 >

Tsong-kha-pa continued his journey for some days before at last
reaching a fertile grassland. He was saddened by the sight of many
dead sheep and cattle. Later, he was told that all had been killed
by a plague. This distressed him so much that he resolved to save
the shepherds. He was told by an old shepherd that there had been a
pearl in the area that protected against plagues, but the pearl had
been stolen by a sea ghost. The sea ghost said he would not return
the pearl until the shepherds had offered him a Living Buddha. The
shepherds had had no choice than to buy some Living Buddhas and
throw them into the lake. The Living Buddhas all died, but still the
ghost refused to return the pearl.
Tsong-kha-pa then decided that he would risk his own life to save
the shepherds. After a ceremony for worshipping the ghost, he was
thrown into the lake. Just as the ghost was about to devour him,
Tsong-kha-pa assumed the appearance of a Buddha, which nearly
frightened the ghost to death. The ghost then kowtowed and took out
the pearl. Tsong-kha-pa received the pearl, returned to his original
appearance, and warned the ghost, "Take me out of the lake
immediately or I shall punish you."
The ghost carried him out on two golden lotuses. The shepherds were
weeping and lamenting as Tsong-kha-pa emerged from the lake on the
two lotuses, holding the pearl in his hand. Once on the shore he
returned the pearl to the shepherds, who could not help staring at
him in amazement. They gave thanks by kowtowing. Afterwards the
livestock in this area multiplied and no plagues came.

RECEIVING TWO PUPILS < 17-18 >

After much suffering, Tsong-kha-pa at last reached snow-covered
Tibet. Lamas in some of the important lamaseries scorned him,
refusing to acknowledge him as a Living Buddha, though Kar-ma spoke
highly of his intelligence. He was called a lama rather than a
Living Buddha, and others refused to admit him to their monasteries.
He lived in a remote cave and devoted himself every day to the study
of the scriptures.
One day while seated on a clay sedan chanting scriptures, he was
visited by two learned lamas. One was seven-year-old Rgyal-tshab-rje
and the other was Mkhas-grub-rje. They purposely came in disguise
that day to test whether Tsong-kha-pa was a true Buddha.
Before entering the cave, Mkhas-grub-rje said to Rgyal-tshab-rje,
"How shall we test him?"
Rgyal-tshab-rje replied, "We should not remove our hats nor kowtow
to him. Then we shall test his scriptural knowledge."
Mkhas-grub-rje agreed, and they entered the cave together. Although
the opening was one chi taller than they were, their hats were
knocked off when they passed inside; when they bent to pick them up,
they unconsciously kowtowed. After retrieving their hats they stood
to one side, observing Tsong-kha-pa chanting.
Tsong-kha-pa concentrated on chanting, ignoring his two visitors.
Then he stood, stepped over the scriptures, put on his kasaya, and
went outside to relieve himself. Rgyal-tshab-rje whispered, "This
time we have him in our hand."
Mkhas-grub-rje said, "Yes, as a Living Buddha, he should know that
no one may step over scriptures and wear a kasaya when he relieves
himself. How could he be a Living Buddha and not know such
fundamental taboos?"
But when they squatted to examine the scriptures, they were
surprised to find that all the writing had been taken away by
Tsong-kha-pa. They exited the cave and were even more surprised to
find that his kasaya was hooked on the horns of a black ox--an
incarnation of the Dizangwang Boddhisattva. They knew that this
boddhisattva appeared only in the presence of great men. Only then
were they convinced that Tsong-kha-pa was truly a Buddha. They
kowtowed in worship, apologized, and escorted him to their lamasery.

SENDING A BLOOD PICTURE TO HIS MOTHER < 18-19 >

Six years had passed since Tsong-kha-pa left home, and his mother
often thought of him. She made a yellow cap, cut a lock of her white
hair, and asked others to write a letter to him. Then she sent the
letter, the cap, and lock of hair to Tibet.
Upon receiving these Tsong-kha-pa was greatly moved. He put on the
cap and held the hair to his forehead, as tears fell to his kasaya
and scriptures like unattached pearls. The next day, he bloodied his
nose and drew a picture of himself with the blood. Then he sent
Rje-dbon-graga-pa-rgyal-mtshan to his mother with the picture, a
Buddha image, and a letter.
Xiangsaaqie was expecting a letter from her son after sending the
articles. One day, while she was sitting with her eldest daughter,
Rje-dbon-grapa-pa-rgyal-mtshan arrived with the letter, picture, and
Buddha image from Tibet. Xiangsaaqie opened the picture roll and
wept with both grief and joy when she beheld the likeness of her
son. The picture of Tsong-kha-pa exclaimed "Mother!" then said no
more. It is believed that Tsong-kha-pa would have talked to his
mother for three days from the picture had it not been seen by
others [on the way from Tibet]: when Rje-dbon-graga-pa-rgyal-mtshan
set out he was told that he must not unroll the picture before
meeting Xiangsaaqie, but, unable to contain his curiosity, had
opened it halfway to Tsong-kha. Afterwards Tsong-kha-pa could say no
more to his mother [than the initial hello]. Regardless of how hard
she wished, the picture of Tsong-kha-pa remained silent. The image
of Tsong-kha-pa opened the letter, and one passage read: "Every
child in the world thinks of his mother, and I am no exception. But
at present I am too busy to visit you. If you think much of me,
please build a tower with a Buddha image and pipal tree at the place
where I was born. When you see the tower, you will then be as happy
as though you were looking at me." In this way Tsong-kha-pa's mother
was enlightened.

THE PIPAL TREE < 19-21 >

There is a tale about the pipal tree growing at the site of
Tsong-kha-pa's birth, where his afterbirth was buried. One day a
newcomer to the area went for firewood. At that time the mountain
was covered with thick forest, so it did not take him long to
finish. He tied the bundle of firewood and started back. On his way,
he saw the little pipal tree and cut it for a staff. When he reached
the foot of the mountain, the sun had risen over the eastern hills
and the fog had dispersed. He felt the firewood bundle on his back
grow heavier and heavier. Resting against the bundle, he noticed a
ray of strikingly colorful light, more beautiful than a rainbow. As
he watched, he thought, "What could this mean, so bright and
beautiful? Why didn't I see it until just now? What on earth could
it signify?"
He left his firewood at the base of the mountain and climbed up
again. He found that when the sun shone on the stump of the small
tree he had cut for a staff, it radiated colorful beams of light.
"Dear me! It is a magical tree that I have cut! What a pity!" he
thought in amazed sorrow. He returned to the foot of the mountain,
brought his firewood back to the spot, and tried, one piece after
another, to find the stick that fit the stump. None did. Finally he
tried the staff. As it touched the stump the two joined together,
the tree took life again, and despite his best efforts he could not
pull them apart. He examined the tree carefully and found a Buddha
image on each leaf. "This is truly a magical tree," he exclaimed. He
knelt and kowtowed to the tree in remorse.
What he did not know was that the tree was growing from where
Tsong-kha-pa's afterbirth had been buried.
Later, the year after receiving Tsong-kha-pa's letter, Xiangsaaqie
succeeded with the assistance of Tibetans, Han, Mongolians, and
Monguors in building a tower with the pipal tree and 100,000 Buddha
images wrapped in yellow silk on the site. This is now known as
Daling Tower. Since the tower preceded the other temple buildings,
the entire temple is known as Tower Temple; in Tibetan, it is called
Gebem Gonba, which means "the temple of 100,000 Buddha images." It
is widely regarded as the place of Sakyamuni's rebirth.

DRIVING AWAY A CUCKOO < 21-22 >

Year after year, Tsong-kha-pa studied scriptures in the lamasery. It
was spring. One day as he took out the scriptures and was about to
chant, he noticed a cuckoo singing outside. This reminded him of a
kind mother calling to her wandering son.
Distressed, Tsong-kha-pa no longer felt like diligent study. He
stepped out of the hall and found many blooming flowers. Not far
away was a green willow grove, and he decided that the cooing came
from there. He longed to enter the grove and enjoy the singing of
the cuckoo. He also wished to return home to see his parents. Then
he remembered that he still had much doctrine to study, and that
there was still an urgent need in Tibet to propagate Buddhism. He
was then at a crucial stage, and any laxity might lead to failure.
Contemplating this, he suppressed his nostalgia and said, "Cuckoo, I
must ask you to leave so that I can concentrate on my study."
The cuckoo seemed to understand and left. Afterwards, in places
where Tsong-kha-pa had been, there were no cuckoos.

DREAMING OF PRINCESS WENCHENG < 22-23 >

On the fifteenth of the first month in 1409, Tsong-kha-pa held a
ritual in front of Jo-khang Temple in Lhasa to commemorate
Sakyamuni. During the ritual, the Sakyamuni image brought by
Princess Wencheng [daughter of the Tang emperor] from Xian when she
came to Tibet was decorated with a golden canopy and a robe. In
front of the statue were flowers made of butter. When the ritual was
concluded, Tsong-kha-pa was so exhausted that he fell asleep as soon
as he lay down.

In a dream, he went to a mountain covered with thick forests. There
was a lake covered with ice, and temples and trees all capped with
snow. It was a pristine but rather forlorn place. While Tsong-kha-pa
was gazing at this scene, Princess Wencheng flew gracefully down and
stood before him. She was dressed in Tang dynasty clothing, and,
though she was beautiful, her expression was sorrowful.
Tsong-kha-pa said, "Your Highness came to Tibet at the emperor's
command and married Srong-btsan-sgam-po, the Tibetan King, thus
joining the Chinese empire and Tibet. You are highly respected by
all the people. Today, I decorated the Buddha image with a gilded
canopy, offered it butter flowers, and chanted scriptures in
worship. So why are you so sad?"

Princess Wencheng said, "When Srong-btsan-sgam-po was dying, he
said, ~Later a man will be born who will be clever and kind. He will
become an excellent monk and a Buddhist leader.' His prophecy has
been fulfilled. You have succeeded in creating your own doctrine. I
am delighted to see what you have done to develop Buddhism. But when
I saw the butter flowers, I was reminded of my life in Chang-an
[Xian] and am tortured by past memories. I won't think of Chang-an
if I can see such butter flowers every year."

Tsong-kha-pa thought for a moment, then said, "Rest. I promise that
we will hold a ritual every year in Jo-khang Temple with many butter
flowers."

"That is very kind of you," said Princess Wencheng, and she left.
Tsong-kha-pa then awakened from his dream. He summoned skilled
craftsmen, divided them into two groups, and had them make butter
flowers. The two groups competed with each other, and their butter
flowers were very beautiful. On the same day the next year, Jo-khang
Temple again held a ritual and the two groups of butter flowers were
exhibited. One group depicted Sakyamuni's life, while the other
depicted Wencheng's journey to Tibet. Both butter-flower exhibits
were splendid. They were shown exactly at the hour when Tsong-kha-pa
had earlier dreamed of Princess Wencheng, and taken away the
following morning. Afterwards, Jo-khang Temple exhibited flowers
every year.

Beginning in 1719, a similar ritual exhibiting butter flowers was
held at Gebem Gonba.

INSTRUCTED BY MANJUSRI BODDHISATTVA <23-24>

After a long period of diligent study Tsong-kha-pa became
exceedingly knowledgeable, but still felt that many complexities
remained in the teachings of Kar-ma and the other learned lamas who
had instructed him. This worried him greatly.
One day while studying the Buddhist canon, he heard a gentle melody
resembling a combination of the songs of all birds. He felt
comforted and gave up chanting. Manjusri appeared and asked, "Why do
you study?"

Tsong-kha-pa was delighted by Manjusri's appearance and chanted some
verses in respect. He then said, "Evil in the world grows ever more
evil and there is less and less civility. If this continues, there
will be no end to suffering. I have studied so hard for the sole
purpose of delivering mankind from suffering, and to persuade them
to abandon evil ways and return to the way of compassion."
"Wonderful!" Manjusri said, nodding. "But you should develop your
own doctrine by studying other teachings to compensate for your own
shortcomings. Then your doctrine will endure forever and you will
have been successful."

Tsong-kha-pa was enlightened. When he looked up again, Manjusri had
vanished. Now he understood the scriptures better. He consulted
other learned lamas about the doctrines of the Bka'-brgyud sect.
Taking advantage of these, he constructed his own teaching and wrote
nineteen books on Buddhism based on his own doctrine. Later, he
became the leader of Dga'-ldan Temple.

INSURING THE FUTURE <24-27>

Upon reaching the age of sixty, Tsong-kha-pa became progressively
weaker and knew he was nearing death. He gathered his pupils in the
main hall and said, "I am now old and weak. I will create two
positions--Dalai [Mongolian: master of the sea] and Panchen
[Mongolian: scholar, saint]. When I die, they will care for the
temple. Those two positions will be filled by Rgyal-tshab-rje and
Mkhas-grub-rje."

Tsong-kha-pa also placed these disciples in two temples:
Rgyal-tshab-rje in the Potala and Mkhas-grub-rje in the Tashilhunpo.
With these two pupils in charge of his doctrine, he was at peace.
One day while Tsong-kha-pa was resting in Dga'-ldan Temple,
Mkhas-grub-rje and Rgyal-tshab-rje entered and said, "Recently, many
ghosts have been committing crimes around about, disturbing the
monks. Please send a guardian god to defend the temple."
Tsong-kha-pa was worried, for he had already heard about this. The
problem was that there was no one to fight them. What his two
students said only increased his worry.

Just then, Rjya-ma, who had been out collecting alms, rushed in
looking anxious. Tsong-kha-pa asked, "Recently, why do you leave
late and return early, often empty-handed?"
Rjya-ma complained, "There is something you don't know. Every day
when I go out for alms, ghosts bar the way with huge stones. When I
remove the stones, it's too late to go out so I must return with
nothing.

Tsong-kha-pa asked, "What are your horns for?"
Enlightened, Rjya-ma dashed out of the temple. His real appearance
included an ox's head and a horse's face and was frightening. He
rushed to the stones and in a few minutes had smashed them all,
clearing the way. Frightened by his valor, the ghosts dared not
trouble him again. It is said there are still some traces of these
stones on Potala Mountain today.

Delighted by his courage, Tsong-kha-pa wanted him to be a guardian
god. But Rjya-ma wished to study the scriptures and become a Buddha,
and so did not want to kill ghosts. This worried Tsong-khapa.
At last he had an idea and made a hollow statue of Rjya-ma. After
summoning Rjya-ma, he said, "I hear that you have great power and
are able to vanquish ghosts. But I wonder if you can enter the navel
of this statue?"

"That's easy. Since I can get into the caves where ghosts live, I
can easily enter," Rjya-ma said. He then shrunk himself and entered
the statue through the navel. Tsong-kha-pa blocked the navel from
the outside before Rjya-ma realized it was a trick.
Tsong-kha-pa said, "I designate you the temple's guardian god. You
should abide by the Buddhist precepts, be brave, and do your best to
defend the temple and all people. Being guardian god will also mean
great merit for you."

Rjya-ma replied from inside the statue, "I now understand the truth.
But I'm afraid I cannot deal will all ghosts alone."

Tsong-kha-pa encouraged him. "I will teach you the scripture of
defense, and will ask the four Celestial Kings to assist you." Then
he taught Rjya-ma the scripture of defense, summoned the four
Celestial Kings, and told them to help Rjya-ma.

The four kings are heavenly generals, each with a magical weapon.
The South King, Virudhaka, has two swords which can kill anything
they touch. The East King, Dhrtarastra, has a pi-pa which can
neutralize disasters and suppress evils. The North King, Vaisravana,
can provide people with treasures produced from the mouth of a mouse
he owns. He also has a canopy that resists hailstorms. The West
King, Virupaksa, has a miniature tower and a dragon, and can
vanquish wild dragons and suppress ghosts. Thus the four kings
became guardian gods, protecting not only the world but also
Buddhist temples.

Having assured the future of temples and Buddhism, Tsong-kha-pa died
in the White Hall in Dga'-ldan Temple at the age of sixty-three on
the thirty-fifth of the tenth month of 1419.

SECRETLY VISITING GFBEM GONBA <28-29>
Various records, scriptures, and lama tales say that due to his
lifelong studies Tsong-kha-pa never returned home after leaving at
the age of sixteen. Tales among the common people, however, relate
that he once secretly visited the present Gebem Gonba and stayed
there one night.

The tale goes as follows. Tsong-kha-pa became a high-ranking lama at
the age of thirty and from the age of thirty-four he began writing.
By fifty-three he was the highest-ranking temple leader during
rituals at Jo-khang Temple, and his doctrine was well established.
At that time he thought of returning home to sec his parents,
because he knew from his increasing weakness that he was approaching
the next world.

One day he went to Jo-khang Temple from Dga'-ldan Temple, sat before
a Sakyamuni image, and chanted. At midnight auspicious omens
appeared: dead lamps began burning and brightened the hall, cypress
ash again gave off an odor, gold and silver bells rang....
Astounded, Tsong-kha-pa heard Sakyamuni shout, "Come up, for I have
something to tell you."

Tsong-kha-pa was delighted. He said, "I would be grateful if you
advised me."

Sakyamuni replied, "Forty years have passed since you came to Tibet.
In this time you have achieved much merit in promoting the influence
of Buddhism over this region. When you die you will be escorted to
Tusita Heaven where you will be the second pupil of Maitreya and
receive the title Vjam-dpal-dbyang. There is not much time left for
you in this life, so you should revisit your homeland and your
parents before you die." With this the Buddha withdrew to his sedan,
but the hall was still filled with a fragrant odor. Tsong-kha-pa
kowtowed to the Buddha in gratitude and returned to Dga'-ldan
Temple, stimulated by these words.

Thus Tsong-kha-pa went to Tsong-kha through a magical underground
route one day, disguised as a shabbily dressed lama. He visited the
place where his parents' tent had been, then visited Daling Temple
on the spot where he had been born. Everywhere he went he chanted
scriptures for his parents to show his gratitude [to them for
rearing him].

That night he slept under a wooden bridge near the temple where he
had played as a child. The next morning the mountain was covered
with snow about one chi thick, but in the vicinity of the bridge
there was only a thin layer of snow. Some people saw signs showing
where he had sat and smelled a strange fragrance. But there were no
tracks of a man. They were surprised, not realizing that
Tsong-kha-pa had been there. It is said that he returned to Tibet at
twilight. For decades afterwards, the area was free of calamities
and favored by good weather. Gradually, people enlarged the temple
and Buddhism flourished in the region.

TIAOQIAN <90-92>

The Fawang Dance is held on the fourteenth day of the first and
fourth months and on the seventh day of the sixth month. The
Horse-headed Warrior Dance is held on the fifteenth day of the
fourth month, the eighth day of the sixth month, and on the
twenty-third day of the ninth month. These dances are collectively
known as the Tiaoqian. In Tibetan, the first month performances are
called Quemaomanqinmo; those of the fourth, Duiqiansunzun; those of
the sixth, Qukeduiqing; and those of the ninth, Labaduiqin. All
originate in the following Tsong-kha-pa tale.

While founding the Yellow Hat sect, Tsong-kha-pa observed much
misery in the world. Within Buddhism some people fought in factions,
some ignored the Buddhist taboos, and some joined laymen in
committing evil. From the outside nonbelievers tried to destroy
Buddhism, calamities and disasters occurred constantly, and many
died. Floods and droughts were frequent, and people were on the
verge of starvation as evil reigned.

How is it possible to relieve the mortal world from such misery?
This was the question that worried Tsong-kha-pa. One night he felt
tired after long study and was about to rest, when a gust of wind
suddenly extinguished his lamp. Feeling tired, he did not relight
the lamp but went to sleep.

In his sleep he beheld a white horse that galloped toward him,
stopped, neighed, and thrashed its tail. Tsong-kha-pa mounted and
rode to a lake near a steep forested mountain. As he observed the
scenery a ball of black fog rose from a deep gully. In a moment, the
scenery was obscured by the black fog and a cold wind blew. Phantoms
and wild creatures danced in the fog and screamed, terrifying
Tsong-kha-pa. Then he heard a kind voice calling, "I'm sorry you are
frightened." Tsong-kha-pa recognized Avalokitesvara's voice as she
descended from the sky on her five-colored cloud and stood before
Tsong-kha-pa. She held a bottle of holy water in her left hand which
she sprinkled about with a small bunch of willow and poplar twigs,
driving away the black fog. Once again the world appeared tranquil
and clean. Avalokitesvara said, "What appeared just now represents
life in Hell for those who commit evil in this life. You have
achieved admirable merit in propagating Buddhism. But there are
still many difficulties to overcome and many ghosts to vanquish. To
make your work easier, you should hold Buddhist rituals to eradicate
the ghosts and overcome unexpected difficulties."

Tsong-kha-pa said, "I am also worried. I would be grateful for
suggestions about how to do this."

Avalokitesvara said, "You have founded a new Buddhist sect and have
a bright future. However, at present you are threatened by four
perils: heresies, ghosts and phantoms, evil desires in ordinary
Buddhists' hearts, and floods. You won't be rid of these unless you
hold performances to reinforce the Buddhist precepts, spread the
Buddhist doctrine, aid the forces of good in suppressing evil, and
drive away all sorts of ghosts. In these performances, reproduce
phantoms and ghosts to show their ugliness and cruelty, depict
heavenly gods to demonstrate courage, portray oxen and deer so as to
exhibit their power, reproduce the souls of the dead so as to
suppress them, and portray the Fawang and warrior to show their
strength in suppressing evil." Then she left on her five-colored
cloud. Excitement surged through Tsong-kha-pa. Later, Avalokitesvara
was delighted when Tsong-kha-pa remembered his dream.
Tsong-kha-pa subsequently carried out reforms in every area of
Buddhism. He reinforced the Buddhist regulations and weeded out evil
behavior among Buddhist adherents. He also proposed a new way of
practising Buddhism. In so doing he strengthened Buddhism throughout
the world.

When he was fifty-three, Tsong-kha-pa held a locally financed ritual
before Jo-khang Temple in Lhasa during the first month that involved
more than 8,000 lamas. Based on the Bon Fawang Dance, the ritual
offered the Fawang and Horse-headed dances. Since then Jo-khang
Temple has held the performances annually, and they gradually came
to be reproduced by other Yellow Hat sect temples as well.
In 1718 the seventh Dalai Lama proposed that Gebem Gonba should
build a dance college to teach music and dance. A dance ritual was
also needed. He helped Gebem Gonba make thirty sets of masks,
dancing costumes, and other props. In this way Gebem Gonba acquired
a dance college.

The following Spring Festival, the seventh Dalai Lama came to Gebem
Gonba and presided over the first Tiaoqian. The ritual was then held
yearly, along with other Buddhist activities.

NOTES

(1.) All tales concerning Tsong-kha-pa were told by the following
four men (Han and Ma do not indicate what tales were told by which
of the four): Lama Xiraojiacuo, Lama Xiangqusuonan, Wang Wanlong
(Tu, peasant), An Yongcai (Han, peasant). (2.) The tree has been
much celebrated and discussed, as in the following account by Tsampo
Nomunkhan: "On the birthplace of Tsong-kha-pa there exists a white
sandalwood tree, on every leaf of which, at the time of the
reformer's birth, there appeared a picture of the Buddha Senge naro,
supernaturally inscribed. Hence, from the circumstance of a 'hundred
thousand images of Buddha' having appeared on the leaves, the town
and the monastery is called Kumbum. Even at the present age, images
are occasionally said to be seen divinely inscribed on the leaves of
the Chandan tree and Sugpa trees of the grove. The enemies of the
Gelugpa [Yellow Hat sect] say that the said images are secretly
drawn with pins and needles by the Gelugpa monks" (1887, 28; quoted
in Schram 1957, 25). Years later, Schram noted: "Kumbum, the
lamasery of the 100,000 images is, at present, the most celebrated
lamasery of Huang-chung, because of its precious trees, which are
lilacs. . . . The main tree sprang from the placenta of Tsong-kha-pa
(1357) and is said to have 100,000 images of Buddhas growing on its
leaves. Much has been written about the tree. On May 6 and October
3, 1912, and on October 10, 1914, Father J. Essens and I read on the
leaves only the two letters ~Pa', the thirteenth letter of the
alphabet, and ~Ya', the twenty-fourth letter, repeated indefinitely,
written more or less correctly where the leaves were easy to reach.
They were written with the red earth, which Chinese and Tibetan
teachers use to correct the compositions of pupils. The sacred
leaves are a wonderful panacea, healing all kinds of disease of men,
women, and children. It has been recorded that in Ch'u-t'an and in
Hungshan-ssu the same kind of miraculous trees are encountered"
(1957, 25). "In Kumbum in 1577 there was built a temple enclosing
the celebrated tree which was at that time 223 years old" (1957,
22). (3.) Schram reported as follows on this temple: "In 1918, I was
guest at Shach'ung, a beautiful lamasery.... It was inhabited by two
or three hundred lamas of Tibetan origin, and had four colleges....
Don dub had been the teacher of Tsong-kha-pa ... who started his
religious career at Sha-ch'ung, and ... the teacher brought his
pupil to Lhasa when he was sixteen years of age. Then the Abbot led
me to a nice building claiming it was there Tsong-kha-pa had
lived.... In 1906, the Chinese started digging for gold in the
sacred mountain (upon which was built the lamasery). The lamas,
opposed to the digging, fought and two men were killed.... The
lamasery and the mountain were hallowed places, because it was there
that the founder of the Yellow Church had clipped his hair and
remained for more than ten years. He [the head of the monastery]
protested that by digging at these spots, the ~artery' of the Yellow
Church would be damaged, and the ruin of its religion be made
inevitable" (1957, 14-15).

REFERENCES CITED

Han Shengkui and Ma Guangxing 1990 Taerside chuanshuo [Taer Temple
tales]. Xining: Qinghai Renmin Chubanshe Reese, W. L. 1980
Dictionary of philosophy and religion: Eastern and Western thought.
New Jersey: Humanities Press. Schram, Louis M. J. 1957 The Monguors
of the Kansu-Tibetan border. Part II. Their religious life.
Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 47(l). Tsampo
Nomunkhan 1887 Geographical work of Tsampo Nomunkhan. Journal of the
Asiatic Society of Bengal 1(1). Wu Min 1980 Taerside chuangjian yu
huangjiaode xinqi [Taer Temple's foundation and the flourishing of
the Yellow Hat sect] Qinghai shehui kexueyuan 4: 77-83.