Place of Faith in Buddhism

·期刊原文
Place of Faith in Buddhism

by N.Dutt.

Indian Historical Quarterly

1940

pp. 639-649

P.639

Saddha (=Sans. Sraddha) in Buddhism carries two distinct meanings:

one is faith(pasada), producing piti (serene pleasure) and the other is self-

confidence, producing viriya (energy). Saddha, when it is pasada (faith), is

an antidote to vicikiccha (doubt about the greatness of Buddha, excellence

of his teaching, and uprightness of his disciples) and moha (deluded state

of mind)( 1), its characteristic, according to the Milindapanha,( 2) Visuddhimagga (3 )

and Abhidharmakosa (4 )being serenity of mind (sampasadana). Saddha,

when it is self-confidence ,puts energy (viriya) into one’s mind to achieve

an object which another person like him has achieved. It makes him rely on

his capabilities and work out the same to their fullest extent. Siddhartha

was not willing to take Rudraka Ramaputta at his words and decided to find

out the truth himself as he possessed like his teacher saddha, viriya, sati,

samadhi and panna. By saddha, he meant confidence in his abilities to

develop the powers necessary to achieve his object.( 5 )It is mostly in the

latter sense that saddha is used in the compounds saddhindriya and saddhabala.

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1 Anagarika B.Govinda writes in his work on the Psychological Attitude of

Early Buddhist Philosophy (pp. 166, 234) that “it is a form of inner confidence

which arises from an intuitive or intellectual insight into the truth of the

dhamma and which grows in the course of meditation on account of profound

and direct experience into a state of certainty and knowledge in which the last

traces of delusion are removed”

2 Milindapanha p.35

3 Visuddhimagga, p.156; Atthasalini, p.304

4 Kosa 1, p.156; Vyakhya(C.O.Series), p.43: Sradha=cetaso prasadah (see

　Jnanaprasthana sutra, 1.19) It is the dharma, with the association of which,

　the thoughts disturbed by klesa and upaklesa become clear as the disturbed

　water becomes clear by the presence of alum. The Vyakhya (p.43) explains

　sraddha in detail thus: Kosa. II. 25: II.32

5 Cf. Milindapanha, p. 35: sampakkhandanalakkhana

　P. 640

The object of this paper is to show how far saddha in the former sense

　　　　　(i.e. pasada) came to be regarded as a means for the attainment of Nibbana.

Three Paths leading to Nibbana

　 The first and well-known path leading to Nibbana is the atthaingikamagga, in

other words, all those practices connoted by the words sila, citta and panna .( 6)

It is an out and out practical code for physical, mental, and intellectual discipline

and hardly offers any scope for faith (saddha). Let us call it `sila-citta-panna’

path or process .

The second but not so well-known as the previous one is the path of satipatthana

or the close observation of what is passing within and outside one’s mind and body.

It gives particular attention to mental discipline, and attaches little importance to physical

discipline or to faith (saddha). By satipatthana alone, it is said , that nibbana is attained,

so let us call it ’satipatthana‘path or process. (7)

In a few places in the Nikayas saddha is recognized as the third path for the attainment

of nibbana , inspite of the fact that it does not go well with the rationalistic principles, of

which the Buddhists are the avowed champion. But this third path,which we may call

`aveccappasada’ path or process, is particularly important for the laity whose interest

is almost ignored at the early stage of the religion, and so it is not improbable that the

third path came to be recognised only at a later date but in any case, before the Pali

canon was closed.

Saddha and the Laity

　　In early Buddhism , the laity had no place in the scheme of spiritual advancement,

for none but a recluse could derive the benefit

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6 Exhaustively treated in the Visuddhimagga. See my Early Buddhism

7 Ekayano ayam maggo sattanam visuddhiya Digha, II. p.290

P. 641

of the teaching . it is frequently stated in the Nikayas that it is not easy for a

householder to practise that brahmacarya which is thoroughly pure and complete

in all respects.( 8 ) The utmost that a householder could practise were the five

skikkhapadas (9), or temporarily the eight sikkhapadas, (10) and that also for the

purpose of uposatha. The teaching to be imparted to a householder was limited

to danakatham silakatham saggakatham kamanam adinavam okaram samkilesam

nekkhamme anisamsam (talks relating to charity, moral precepts, and heaven, the

evils of indulging in worldly desires, and the good effects of renunciation) (11) and

a bhikkhu imparting to a householder deeper or subtler teaching was punished

according to the rules of the Patimokkha (12). The highest spiritual teaching that

could be imparted to a householder and that also only in special cases was the

exposition of the four ariyasaccas.the householders were allowed to practise only

dana and sila, later on they were advised to develop saddha and panna. By

saddha was meant cultivation of faith in Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha , and by

panna comprehension of the four truths, and in some cases, also paticcasamuppada.

The programme of duties laid down for the laity is detailed thus: (13) An ariyasavaka

is to develop firm faith in Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha, and then he should perfect

himself in the five silas (sikkhapadas), be liberal in gifts, (14) and lastly he should try

to comprehend the four truths, and, if possible also the paticcasamuppada.(15)

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8 Nayidam sukaram agaram ajjhavasata ekantaparippunnam ekantaparisuddham

　brahmacariyam caritum Majjhima II, p.55

9 panatipata veramani, adinnadana v., micchacara v., musavada v., suramerayama－

　jjpamadatthana v.,

10 The three additional are vikalabhojana v.,

　naccagitavaditavisukadassanamalagandhavilepanadharanamandanavibhusanatthana v.,

　and uccasana-mahasayana v.,

11 Cf. Anguttara, IV, p 209

12 Cf. Pacittiya, 3: yo pana bhikkhu anupasampannam padaso dhammam vaceyya

　pacittiyam

13 Anguttara, II, p. 212; IV, p.271

14 Muttacaga payatapani vossaggarata yacayoga danasamvibhagarata

15 Anguttara V, p. 184

P. 642

A person endowed with these four,(16) which are called sotapattiyangas,

becomes a sotapanna, and may rest assured that he will be reborn as a god,

and will never be reborn in the hells, or in the preta world and that in the long

run he is destined to attain sambodhhi .(17) The above account shows that saddha

(faith ) was primarily meant for the laity and formed one of the vital items of practice

for their spiritual uplift. Deep saddha in some cases, produced piti(serene pleasure)

and helped concentration of mind, but in any case, Nibbana, according to the early

Buddhists, was unattainable by a householder.

Saddha and the Bhikkhus

The expression frequent in the Nikayas; saddhaya kulaputta agarasma anagariyam

pabbajanti (out of faith sons of good families retire from home to homeless life )

shows that the bhikkhu life generally commenced out of saddha (faith). The first duty

of a bhikkhu is to become a sotapanna by removing the nivaranas ,(18) one of which

is vicikiccha. The removal of vicikiccha can only be effected by developing saddha

as stated above (vide p.639 ). Again, in the sixteen moments of comprehension of

the four aryan truths, jnana is always preceded by ksanti (i.e. faith) (19) and so

saddha was not wholly dispensed with by the bhikkhus. But the bhikkhus are warned

against growing saddha for the teacher for it is akin to prema (affection) and works

more as an obstacle than as an aid to spiritual progress. (20) It is said that Ananda`s

spiritual progress was hampered on account of his saddha for Buddha.

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16 Saddha, sila,caga,panna

17Anguttara, V.p.182

18 Sakkayaditthi,silabbataparamasa, vicikiccha.

19 E.g.,(i) duhkhe dharmajnana-ksanti (ii) duhkhe dharmajnanam (iii)duhkhe

　anvayanana-ksanti,(iv)duhkhe anvayajnanam

20 Kosa,II,32;cf Vyakhya (C.O.Series)p.54

　P. 643

The two dhuras

It is worth while to refer in this connection to the two dhuras mentioned in

the Buddhist texts,viz., Saddha-dhura and Panna dhura. Saddha, however, does

not play an important part in Saddhadhura, for, the distinction made between the

two dhuras is not on account of the degree of predominance of saddha or panna

but on account of the dullness or sharpness of the faculties of monks. Saddha-dhura

is prescribed for monks with dull faculties while Panna-dhura for monks with sharp

faculties. Thought the saddhan-usaris do not make saddha their main prop, they

first grow faith in, and regard for, the Tathagata ,(21) and then acquire the five

indriyas( 22) including panna. Likewise the dhammanusaris do not dispense with

saddha but make panna their first item of acquisition (23) and then develop the

other indriyas including saddha.(24)

It will be observed that saddha is explained here as faith or affection but not as

self-confidence, which is the usual sense in which saddha is interpreted when it is

grouped with viriya and other indriyas. It seems that in the Buddhist texts the two

meanings of saddha have not always been carefully distinguished. Saddha as an

indriya (predominating factor) and bala ( force) should ordinarily mean“ self-confidence”

and not faith.

Saddha(faith) as a means to liberation

There are passages in the Majjhima and Anguttara nikayas where emphasis is

laid on faith (saddha ) as a means to liberation. In the Majjhima(1, p. 480-1) it is stated

that there are bhikkhus who

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21 Tathagate c‘ssa saddhamattam hoti pemamattam

22 Saddha, viriya,sati, samadhi and panna

23 Tathagatappavedita c‘assa dhamma pannaya mattaso nijjhanam khamanti

24 Cf. Majjhima,I,p.478f; Kosa VI.31

P. 644

have taken resort to Buddhism out of faith. They believe that Bhagava knows

everything while they do not, that his teaching is forceful and attractive, and

that they should exert for the goal until their bodies are dried up leaving only

the bare skin, bones and sinews. These monks, the texts state, acquire the

highest knowledge in this life, or at least, the anagami stage.

Avcccappasada process

In the Vatthupama Sutta, a complete course of training is prescribed for those

monks who intend to make pasada (faith) their main prop for the attainment of liberation.

The process is as follows:

I An adept should first get rid of the mental impurities such as abhijjha (strong

attachment), macchariya (avarice), makkha (hypocrisy), maya (cheating others),

satheyya (double-dealing), thambho and sarambho (pride and haughtiness), mano

and atimano (conceit); mada (pride or excitement caused by attachment to one`s own

acquisitions), (25) and pamada calesness).(26)

II

After the removal of the above-mentioned impurities, which may well be

compared to the sila practices of the ‘sila-citta-panna process, the adept is

required to develop unflinching faith in Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha. The

usual terms in which the faith is to be expressed are as follows;-

Bhagava the enlightened is endowed with knowledge and good conduct, he
　is the knower of world, the guide in disciplining men, the incomparable, the

　teacher of men and gods.

The Dhamma preached by Bhagava produces fruit in this life, invites every
　body, knows no limitation of time, leads one to the goal and is realisable only

　by the wise within one`s own self

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25 Kosa II, 33:

26 See Klesa upaklesa paryavasthana and anusaya in the Kosa. ch.V.

P. 645

The Sangha consits of monks who are in one of the eight stages of sanctification,
　and righteous, who are exerting for knowedge, observing good conduct, who are

　worthy of gifts and praise and respects, and who are fit recipients of gifts from laymen.

III.

　 The more the mental impurities are removed the stronger becomes his faith in

Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha. This faith produces in his mind the satisfaction that

he has achieved something good. This satisfaction in its turn produces joy and a

sense of deep pleasure(piti) which makes the body calm and the mind serene and

ultimately, the mind gets concentrated.(27)

It will be observed that all the processes, be it ‘sila-citta-panna or ’satipatthana

‘ or aveccappasada’, aim at samadhi (concentration of mind). In the ‘sila-citta-panna’

process, this is achieved by means of the four jhanas. By the first jhana one acquires

‘viveka jam pitisukham, (28) by the second ’samadhijam pitisukham, (29) and then

by the third and fourth, he dismisses the piti-sukha in order to develop ‘upekkha’

(equanimity). In the ‘aveccappasada’ process, piti-sukha subsides, giving rise to

samadhi, i.e., it skips over the processes of the third and fourth jhanas.(30)

IV. After developing concentration of mind, the adept is required to practise the four

brahmaviharas, i.e., he is to extend metta(love), karuna (compassion), mudita(feeling of

joy at others‘ success) and upekkha (feeling of equanimity) to all beings of all the

corners of the world.

V. After attaining perfection in the practice of the

bramaviharas, the adept realises the four truths,(31) and destroys the three

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27 Sukhino cittam samadhiyati

28 “Deep pleasure due to solitude”

29“Deep pleasure due to concentration of mind”

30 Cf. Majjhima, I, p. 37-38 and p. 21-22

31 Expressed thus;-Atthi idam, atthi hinam, atthi panitam, atthi imassa sannagatassa

　uttarim nissaranam- Majjhima, I, p.38

p 646

asavas, viz, kama, bhava and avijja.( 32) He is now convinced that he has completed his

task and has nothing more to do and that he will have no more rebirth.

It is remarkable that in this process the practice of brahmaviharas is made an integral part,

while no mention is made of the samapattis. As a rule , the brahmaviharas are excluded

from the list of practices prescribed in the ‘sila-citta-panna’ process. These are not

even included in the thirty-seven bodhipakkhiya dhammas. In the Nikayas the brahmaviharas

are hardly mentioned, and if at all in such suttas which are Mahayanic in character.(33) The

brahmaviharas go best with the paramis, as is clearly shown in the Visuddhimagga (34).

Another remarkable feature in course of training this is that there is no insistence on the

observance of the patimokkha rules, and as such it can be followed by a person who has not

embraced the austere life of a Buddhist monk. This latitude is particularly noticeable in the

remark that a person following this course of life is free to take luxurious food, as that will

not be a hindrance to his spiritual progress. 35

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32 It will be noticed that ditthi-asava is not included, for the question of ditthi does not

　arise in this process.

33. This ‘aveccappasada’ process with the inclusion of the practice of the brahmaviharas,

　it seems, was an outcome of the Mahayanic influence , and that the Suttas, which speak of

　the brabmavharas, belong to a date when Minayana was in the state of transition to Mahayana.

　The Vatthupama and Makhadeva suttas of the Hajjhima Nikaya should therefore be ascribed

　to a date when the Mahasanghika school was making its influence felt in the Buddhist circles.

34 Visuddhimagga, ch. IX

35 Majjhima I, p.38; Sa kho so bhikkhu evam silo evam dhtammo evam panno salinam ce pi

　pindapatam bhunjati vicitakalakam anekasupam anekabyanjanam n‘ev’assa tam hoti

　antarayaya.