The Chinese Doctirnal Acceptance of Buddhism

·期刊原文
THE CHINESE DOCTRINAL ACCEPTANCE OF BUDDHISM

Kenneth K. Inada
Journal of chinese Philosophy
vol 24:1 (1991)
PP. 5-17
Coypright @ 1997 by dialogue Publishing Company, Honolulu,
Hawaii, U.S.A.

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P.5

For years I have wondered about Buddhism in China with
both puzzlement and amazement. Puzzlement as to why the
Chinese accepted a foreign ideology, a religion, that would
sweep their already set ways of thinking and practice, i.e.,
despite the fact of their established Confucian and Taoist
traditions. Amazement in terms of how the Chinese over a
period of time, several centuries to be sure, were able to
understand Buddhist principles or doctrines in such a way
that in time they were able to forge ahead with their own
brand of Chinese Buddhism. With respect to both aspects,
puzzlement and amazement, I certainly do not have any
complete answers for the simple reason that a good portion of
the answers are quietly buried in the sands of time.
To the first aspect, puzzlement, perhaps the onus of
clarifying the situation belongs largely to the historians
and related social scientists, if indeed a consistent
plausible story can be told. To the second aspect, amazement,
perhaps the onus of presenting a plausible theory belongs to
the speculative thinkers who are able to decipher the
ideological contacts and ongoing dialogues, subtle and
abstract as they necessarily are, and bring forth a
reasonable theory concerning the uniqueness of the Chinese
mind in terms of adaptation, accommodation, incorporation and
creativity. In this essay, I am more concerned about the
aspect of amazement than that of puzzlement and will thus
proceed accordingly with full knowledge that a more
comprehensive treatment will have to be done by the
cooperation and contributions by scholars throughout the
world.

P. 6

I. Continental Spirit

We must first of all focus on the nature of the Chinese
mind. This mind has unique features which many a scholar has
failed to address properly or to which they merely gave lip
service. The attitude is not only myopic but damaging to any
probe and understanding for, afterall, the unique Chinese
culture or civilization is certainly based on a unique mind.
The best description I have encountered thus far comes
from the late Fung Yu-lan(a) who characterized the Chinese
mind as one endowed with a continental spirit. The more I
explore into the nature of the Chinese mind the more I am
inclined to accept Fung's characterization. Of course the
continental spirit does not explain every phase or element of
the mind, but it does, more importantly, point out the basis
of each phase or element that makes a crucial difference in
the interpretation of a people, their actions and culture.
So, what is the continental spirit? The term
"continental" depicts a huge land mass, a vastness, an
illimitable nature, and the term "spirit" is modified with
the same nature, a spirit that is huge, large, extensive,
holistic, totalistic and a grand unity. Because of such a
spiritual nature, it also carries with it certain
complementary features or dimensions, such as, resiliency,
malleability, mutuality and, most significantly, constant
change or transformation. In consequence, when we point to
the Chinese mind, we are focusing on resultant actions that
exhibit particular form and content. That is to say, the
exhibitions are characterized by a full breadth, depth and
total change in the phenomenal and spiritual worlds of
individuals; these actions are also expressed in terms of
boldness, swiftness, magnanimity and holistic mutual
involvement.
This is the spirit that has led and guided the Chinese to
construct unbelievable greater-than-life monuments of human
endeavor, such as, the Great Wall, the Grand Canal, the Ming
Tombs and the huge buried entourage of warriors designed to
guide the emperor's final journey to the nether world. These
monuments could hardly come about from a lesser mind or

P.7

without a spirit to match them. Naturally, at times. such a
spirit may falter or languor in hubris as witnessed for
example by the relative inactivity, passivity or
incohesiveness of the Ch'ing Government during the European
colonial expansionism in Asia.

II. Tao: The Nature of Things

The concept of the Tao underlies all existence in
phenomenal as well as non-phenomenal manifestations indeed it
is Nature as it is and as it is in the making. The Chinese
early on depicted the Tao manifestation in terms of the
cosmological triadic heaven-earth-humankind relationship, a
relationship that focuses on the holistic unity of things
rather than on any divisive or dichotomous particulars.
Nothing stands alone or independent under this cosmology, so
that everything seeks mutual identity in its scheme of
things. This totalistic nature is not only difficult to grasp
but also difficult to implement in everyday living, yet it is
always the basis of all actions and activities, large and
small, significant or insignificant, good or evil.
What makes it difficult to grasp? The answer lodges in
the most auspicious but demanding concept of change (yi(b)).
In retrospect, it was the Chinese genius to perceive change
as the most important and basic element of nature in the
understanding of the phenomenal world. The average person,
however, would not see its importance in phenomenal movements
and would instead simply ignore it as not having any
appreciable consequence. But therein lies the rub. That is to
say,have we really taken a good look at the happenings, the
momentary nature of things? Have we wondered about the events
of the day as they arise and subside, or how they influence
and mold the very character of succeeding events? Or, in the
personal biological realm, have we really gotten to the
bottom of changes in the ageing process? The chances are we
have not seriously examined ourselves and that the ageing
process or events attendant to it are mere slurs, if anything
at all, in our dim memories. These memories are awakened only
by reference to anniversaries or celebrations of certain

P.8

dates. But we cannot escape the fact that we are creatures in
momentary existence in tandem with the cosmological process.
The Chinese saw change or transformation as the very
expression of the Tao.(C) How the Tao expresses itself and
how humans are able to follow its movements have been the
eternal quest from time immemorial. On this point, the whole
genre of Taoist literature is nothing but a revelation of the
Tao and its movements, a revelation that remains a constant
challenge to humans to assimilate its process. A simple
message, to be sure, but one fraught with implemental
difficulties.
The Yi-ching(d) (Book of Changes) crystallizes the
movement of the Tao in terms of so-called positive and
negative forces, the straight and broken lines. The elaborate
configurations in the hexagrams have constantly been an
allurement to many a thinker who seeks to decipher their
meaning and significance, even in contemporary times all this
has trickled down to the rhythmic representations of daily
phenomena as recorded, for example, in popular Oriental
calendars. Moreover, the movements are nothing but
interpretive derivations of the well known yin-yang(e)
phenomenon. This phenomenon, more accurately, should be
referred to as correlative or mutual dynamics because it
points to an inner process which defies dichotomization into
independent elements or forces. It exhibits the fact that
mere cosmological description is inadequate, and calls for
the need to grasp or intimate what is an ever vital
ontological dynamics. It also affirms the leading Taoist
notion that the Tao that can be expressed/described is not
the eternal Tao. Such a notion is frustrating, to say the
least, but it also challenges and entices us to further probe
the nature and function of the Tao. Indeed, in a sense, the
whole Taoist literature is nothing but hints and suggestions
on how to become intimate with the Tao. We shall now try to
discuss a few of these basic but subtle ideas
The Tao Te Ching(f) has several references to the great
doctrine of non-action (wu-wei(g)). It exhibits the fact that
rather than positively identifiable action in and of itself
that really underlies change, it is the exact opposite
notion, the nature of non-action, that does so. For

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example, it is said "By acting without action, all things
will be in order" (verse 3) .(1) Or, similarly, " Tao
invariably takes no action, and yet there is nothing left
undone." (verse 37).(2) And finally, verse 43 illuminates
it.(3)

The softest things in the world overcome
the hardest things in the world.
Non-being penetrates that in which there is no space.
Through this I know the advantage of taking no action.
Few in the world can understand teaching without words
and the advantage of taking no action.

The above verse contains the important concept of
non-being, a cognate for the way of non-action. Since deeds
of non-action are quite subtle and paradoxical, we turn to
Chuang Tzu(h) to enlighten us, especially by his great acumen
for the use of metaphorical language. In the Chuang Tzu,
Chapter 27, on "Imputed Words,"(4) he discusses the very
important nature and function of goblet words (chih-yen(i))
Goblet words transport ideas but are not carriers of ideas in
and of themselves. They are "words that are no-words," and
"you may speak all your life long and you will never have
said anything."(5) So like the utensil named a goblet which
fills up with water only to empty its contents when full and
immediately return to its upright position, the process of
filling-and-emptying never ends, which is precisely the
manner in which goblet words function. These words, in brief
flow with the process of speaking and do not ever have any
objectively residual nature or any retaining characteristics.
Such then is also the flow of the Tao and the basis of all
changes wherein non-action is more basic than visible action.

III. Being-nonbeing Dynamics

The tension between being and nonbeing is merely alleged
since it exists only because of the inadequate understanding
of human perception. That is to say, in the normal perception
of things, one's perceptual appara-

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tus is always skewed in the direction of the tangible,
visible or manipulable elements. However, perception is much
more than what the apparatus reveals, since those elements
are always more open, wider and deeper. In other words, we
have been conditioned in such a way that we always associate
perception with those specific elements, and so in time an
odd habit of perception develops which not only blunts the
perceptual edges, but continues to keep us tied up with those
elements.
Just as we saw with the nondichotomous yin-yang process,
the being-nonbeing process is also dynamic at all times.
Moreover, as soon as the dual components are split up, the
process is no longer balanced and dynamic. It will result in
a truncated view, a half-view, if you will, of the process
itself. Where Lao Tzu(j) and Chuang Tzu wrote in metaphysical
terms concerning the movements of the Tao,we find that the
Neo-Taoists, Wang Pi(k) (226-249) in particular, came to
grips with the dynamic nature of things in more explicit
ways. He introduced two features in the dynamics, namely,
substance (t'i(1)) and function(yung(m) ), to exhibit its
holistic and fluid nature. His singular contribution here is
to speak of an original substance (pen-t'i(n) )whereby
function (yung) becomes a way of exhibiting its
manifestation. In this respect, his commentary on the Book of
Changes brings out the cardinal doctrine of an underlying
principle in each of the changes as depicted by the
respective hexagrams (i.e., symbolic representations of
nature's occurrencies).(6) As a further extension of this
doctrine, his commentary on the Tao Te Ching, Chapter 1,
offers a bold and direct affirmation that "all beings
originated from nonbeing" and that "the time before physical
forms and names appeared was the beginning of the myriad
things" and thus the "Tao produces and completes things with
the formless and nameless."(7) Although these statements
appear to replicate the Tao Te Ching, we must take into
consideration the times, (the 3rd Century A.D.) and the
circumstances (the age of disunity) in which these assertions
were made, a time when Buddhism was already making inroads
into Chinese culture. At this juncture, I am compelled to
assert that Wang Pi, in his relatively short life (dying at
24) filled with rnetaphysical acumen, set the stage for
subsequent Chinese

P.11

thought to be conducive to the accommodation of Buddhist
doctrines and principles. From this period on, there will be
greater and more serious contacts with Buddhism in various
aspects. Indeed, the most notable scholars during this
crucial period of contacts came from the Taoist persuasion.
The most prominent Taoist turned Buddhist here is
Seng-Chao(o) (384-414) who worked with the famous
Kumarajiva(P) (344-413) on translating Buddhist texts. He
also on his own commented and wrote treatises on Buddhist
doctrines, albeit with Taoist leanings. These treatises were
later compiled by his disciples into a work called Chao
Lun(q) (Treatises of Seng Chao). With remarkable insight and
understanding of Buddhist principles, especially those of
Nagarjuna's(r) (15-250) Verses on Ihe Fundamental Middle
Doctrine(S) (Mulamadhyamakakarika) he gave a fine
philosophical treatment of Buddho-Taoist vocabulary. He
recognized the superior Buddhist perception of ordinary
experience, a dyanmic form of metaphysics, and set the tone
for Chinese Buddhist development.(8) Perhaps he more than any
other Chinese thinker was able to perceive the subtle
connection or association between Wu(t) and k'ung(u) ,
"nonbeing'' and "emptiness" respectively. In a sense, he set
the stage for the eventual identical treatment of the two
concepts in Chinese thought and culture, especially as seen
in various art forms. By the time of the T'ang Dynasty
(618-907) the Chinese had become attuned to Buddhist
principles and went ahead to establish their own brand of
Chinese Buddhism, notably Ch'an(V) (Zen) and Ch'ing-t'u(W)
(Pure Land).

IV. Analogical Comparisons

We are at a point to begin general analogical comparisons
between Chinese pilosophy and Buddhism. The first general
category in which both seem to converge is the quest for the
truth of existence. That is to say, both systems of thought
focus on the total nature of perception to realize the true
nature of existence. Where the Chinese perception is always
oriented in the triadic heaven-earth-humankind relationship
to

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exhibit the Tao and its manifestation, the Buddhists took the
lead from the historical Buddha's insight (prajna) that led
to nirvana and came up with the novel nature of the Dharma
and its manifestation in experiential reality. Thus on the
whole, the methodological quest for the Tao is similar to the
quest for the Dharma.
Both systems acknowledged the subtleties of the quest and
resorted to the two-fold nature of epistemic functions, i.e.,
the ordinary or conventional perception of things and the
inordinate or supreme perceptual insight into the nature of
things. The Taoist, for example, referred to imputed words
for the former perception and to goblet words to aid in
realizing the latter. The former is related to the senses and
the latter to the mind's unique way of sensing and
transporting (indeed in a way transmuting) ideas into
experiential realities. The former lies in the domain of
being (yu(X)), and the latter in the domain of nonbeing(wu).
So that, ultimately, enlightenment (ming(y)) in Chinese meant
the perception of nonbeing over being.
The Buddhists likewise made the distinction between the
veiled or covered nature of truth (samvrti-sat) and the
supremely open and pure nature of truth (paramartha-sat )The
former, again, is related to the senses and their functions
as in Chinese thought and the latter to the mind's strength
to discipline itself (i.e., yoga) to control the epistemic
rise of forms or entities derived from the senses, but which
unsuspectingly and incessantly occlude the very nature of
perception. As a consequence, in Mahayana Buddhism we witness
the interplay between the senses and the mind. Because the
senses are limited they deal only with forms or experiential
dharmas,(9) and mind initially functions by being fed the
dharmas from the senses by virtue of yogic discipline it will
realize the purity or emptiness (sunyata )of experiential
reality. All of this is oriented within the nature of dynamic
experience, known technically as relational origination
(pratitya-samutpada). Furthermore, it was the great Nagarjuna
(c.150-250) who demonstrated the pitfalls of dharmic analysis
that veers off from relational origination to end in
objective realism or substantialism, thus retarding the very
function of experience by attach-

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ment to projected inherent natures (svabhava). He saw reality
or the truth of existence within the dynamic flow of things
and did not deviate from this context. His famous
equation(10) of (a) relational origination, (b) emptiness (c)
provisionality of things, and (d) the middle way exhibits in
no uncertain terms that the truth of existence is
multifaceted, indeed multicontextual, and that in the final
analysis it is non-dharmic and totally empty of any
designation. This equation is another version, indeed a
follow up, of the famous assertion found in the Heart
Sutra:(11) "Form is empty and the very emptiness is form." So
Buddhism also concluded that emptiness or nonbeing (wu)
undercuts any reference to elements of existence (dharmas) or
beings as such (yu).
Although Chinese thought is not as thorough as the
Buddhist metaphysical treatment of experience in terms of the
dharmas and non-dharmic nature of things, it should be noted
that Chinese thinkers also acknowledged an analogous
connection between being and nonbeing. This fact is quite
obvious, especially in the philosophy of Seng-chao, and thus
the Chinese pursued the enlightening process within a similar
framework of dynamic reality. In consequence, both the Tao
and the Dharma are at once subject to and the basis of
experiential phenomena; they are idealized myths, if you
will, of existence. Again, although Chinese thought is
divided between Confucianism and Taoism on the matter of
humanity (jen(z)), both schools still function to incorporate
the highest state of personhood, the sage, within the same
unadulterated nature of existence. For Confucianism, the
attainment of humanity is most basic to all of life; indeed
it is the foundation of all other virtues and doctrines, such
as, righteousness, propriety, trustworthiness and
intelligence. For Taoism, on the other hand, there is no
attainment of humanity as such because it is not an item to
be captured nor is it something to be objectified and
manipulated. In this respect, the Tao Te Ching and Chuang Tzu
have taken issue with the above-mentioned Confucian
doctrines. This does not mean, however, that the Taoist is
not interested in the good life or the good person. Quite the
contrary, the Taoist is deeply concerned for the well-being
of individuals and he or she goes about promoting it in a

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thoroughgoing naturalistic way rather than in any twisted,
strained, forced, formal or conventionally attached ways. The
doctrine of supreme naturalness (tzu-jan (aa)) is highly
prized, and is a cognate term for nonaction (wu-wei)
discussed earlier. In turn, it is an extension of the nature
of nonbeing. All this points to the supreme realization or
intuition of the Tao (wu-tao(ab)).
The closest concept to humanity (jen) in Buddhism is the
great doctrine of compassion (karuna). It is actually the
flip side of penetrating insight (prajna). For when the
historical Buddha realized deep insight into the nature of
things, how experiences continually arise and subside, the
realization at once manifested both the nature of compassion
to understand and save all beings regardless of class, rank
or stature, and that all being belong to the selfsame realm
of existence. So in Buddhism insight and compassion are
regarded as the 'twin peaks' of existence and the highest
forms of livelihood. As a consequence, from the very outset
Buddhist thought had collapsed the realms of epistemology and
ethics No one could speak of one realm without introducing
the other. This is the foundation of the concept of
Bodhisattva, literally the "enlighted being", because such a
one realizes the equality of beings and practices the
Bodhisattva way of life (Bodhisattvacarya). In sum, this
ideal way of life poses the ultimate challenge to all
adherents of the Buddhist faith as well as to interpreters of
Buddhism.
In truth Chinese thought was capable of incorporating the
insightcompassion scheme of things because of its Taoist and
Confucian lineage which stressed the sagelike penetration
into reality (Tao) and the unstrained humaneness abounding
everywhere. Its continental spirit was always magnanimous
enough to allow the Chinese to nourish all elements, both
domestic and foreign, into a comprehensive harmony.
Moreover, from the methodological standpoint, the merging
or fusing of Buddhist and Chinese thought displays a deeper
nature of the systems, issuing forth a unique kind of
Oriental way of life. More specifically, it reveals that
Asiatic philosophic systems, by and large, do not adhere
strictly to Western fields of metaphysics(ontology) ,
epistemology

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and ethics, and to their attendant elements that foster
objectivism. If indeed a central field is to be designated,
then it would have to be ethics, the search/quest for the
ideal personhood-buddhahood and sagehood in our discussion.
All metaphysical and epistemological devices are used merely
as aids to understanding the human situation. In the final
analysis, the nature and function of ethical principles and
values can only be captured and appreciated by serious
individual effort and dedication. To this end Asians have
striven for and demonstrated the feasibility of a supremely
noble way of life.
A final afterthought: The Chinese were successful in
finally incorporating Buddhist thought into their culture
about 1500 years ago, though it took them through a long and
tortuous route. Is it not then possible that we here today
stand a good chance of succeeding through various forms of
East-West dialogues in eventually attaining a dialectical
transformation of our lives? Since the mechanics of the
contacts and many actual human benefits in dialogue are
already in place, we may be in a fortunate situation. But
only time will reveal the final outcome.

THE STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK AT BUFFALO

NOTES

1. Wing-tsit Chan, A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy
(NY: Columbia University Press, 1963). Tao Te Ching.
Verse 3, p. 141.
2. Ibid., Verse37,p.158.
3. Ibid.; Verse43,p.161.
4. Burton Watson, tr., The Complete Works of Chuang Tzu
(NY. Columbia University Press, 1968). Chapter 27,pp.
301-308
5. Ibid., p.304.
6 Wing-tsit Chan, op.cit.pp 320-321.
7. Ibid., p.321.
8. Seng-chao's treatises discuss highly abstract subject
matters, such as, on "The Immutability of Things,"
"The Emptiness of the Unreal," 'The Uncogniz-

P.16

able Nature of Prajna (insight), " and "The
Undesignatable Nature of Nirvana." These are all
essential doctrines of Mahayana Buddhism which
Seng-chao focused on and understood them quite well,
aided no doubt by being close to his teacher,
Kumarajiva. It is no accident. moreover, that
Kumarajiva chose to translate texts relative to the
Madhyamaka philosophy (Middle Way School) Afterall,
they were the leading texts in India.

9. These dharma (lower case "d") are factors or elements
of experience and should not be confused or identified
with the Dharma (in caps), the truth of existence. In
order to avoid confusion, the latter is commonly
referred to as Buddha Dharma. That the same term is
used for ordinary experience as well as enlightened
experience exhibits clearly the infrastructural nature
of things. In other words, true to the Buddha's
original insight, there is universal nature of
suffering but at the same time there is a way out of
suffering within the selfsame nature of things. This
is indeed the saving truth for all Buddhist adherents.
10. Nagarjuna, Mulamadhyamakakarika Verses on the
Fundamental Middle Doctrine) XXIV, 18. See various
translations of this mononumental work, eg.,by Kenneth
K. Inada, Nagarjuna (Tokyo: Hokuseido Press, 1970)
P. 148.
11. See the excellent translations and explanations of the
Diamond Sutra and the Heart Sutra by Edward Conze,
Buddhist Wisdom Books (London: George Allen & Unwin
Ltd., 1958).