The mind-only teaching of Ching-ying Hui-Yuan

·期刊原文
The mind-only teaching of Ching-ying Hui-Yuan:
An early interpretation of Yogaacaara thought in China
BY Ming-Wood Liu
Philosophy east and West
Vol. 35, no.4(October 1985)
P 351-375

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(C) by the University of Hawaii Press.

P351

Yogaacaara Buddhism was first introduced into China
in the early sixth century through the effort of the
so-called Ti-lun masters(a) and She-lun masters(b),
who based their teachings on the
Da`sabhuumikasuutra-`saastra (Ti-lun) and
Mahaayaanasa.mgraha`saastra (she-lun) of Vasubandhu
and Asa^nga, respectively.(1) While these Ti-lun and
She-lun masters shared the general Yogaacaara
concern for the problem of the mind, their
understanding of the mind's nature, functions, and
role in the process of enlightenment differed
markedly from the original Indian model. In this
article we shall attempt to outline some of the main
features of the early Chinese Yogaacaara teaching of
the mind based on the works of Hui-yuan of the
Ching-ying Temple(c),(2) who had the distinction of
being the only Ti-lun master who had left behind a
wide assortment of writings,(3) which at present
constitute the single most important source for the
study of the early interpretation of Yogaacaara
thought in China.(4)

I.MIND-ONLY AS THE CENTRAL THEME OF MAHAYANA BUDDHISM

Among the many ways of classifying Buddhist texts
current in his time,(5) Hui-yuan favors the twofold
division into "the canon of the `sraavakas"
(sheng-wen tsang(d) ) and "the canon of the
bodhisattvas" (p'u-sa tsang(e)), which corresponds
to the traditional division of Buddhism into the two
branches of the Hiinayaana and the Mahaayaana. Of
the many ideas peculiar to the Mahaayaana group of
scriptures, Hui-yuan mentions in particular the
tenet of mind only:

In the teaching of the Mahaayaana, it is maintained
that all dharmas are merely beings of the mind, just
as appearances in dreams. When the mind arises,
dharmas [also] arise; and when the mind is
annihilated, dharmas are [also] annihilated. Since
[the activities of] the false mind will cease with
the attainment of nirvaa.na, all dharmas, being
appearances of the mind, will [also] come to an
end.(6)

Contrasting the Hiinayaana with the Mahaayaana
conceptions of the false consciousness, Hui-yuan
points out that while the Hiinayaanists realize the
mistake of attributing self-nature to dharmas, they
cannot comprehend that all dharmas are founded on
the mind:

As depicted in Hiinayaana [texts], the grasping and
the deluded mind erroneously regards dharmas outside
the mind as possessing self-nature, and does not
perceive that [all] nameable functions are without
[self-] essence. As depicted in the teaching of the
Mahaayaana, the false consciousness deceives and
hides the true essence, and wrongly considers
dharmas arising from itself as real.(7)

His conception of Mahaayaana Buddhism being such, it
is not surprising that Hui-yuan, a self-avowed
Mahaayaanist like most Chinese Buddhists, would come
to adopt the thesis of mind-only as the core of his
ontology. Thus, we often find in his writings such
statements as "All dharmas are produced by the one
mind,

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just as events in dreams are created by the mind in
slumber,"(8) "There exist at first false thoughts,
which conceive of [the existence of] dharmas outside
the mind, not realizing that dharmas owe their being
to the mind,"(9) and so forth. The idea that there
exist no mind-independent entities is central to
Hui-yuan's world view. So he remarks, "No realm [of
being] originates from itself, but is formed by the
mind."(10) Again he asserts, "One perceives that the
external world arises from the mind only. That there
exists no realm outside the mind is known as 'the
nature of no-form' (wu-hsiang hsing(f))."(11)

Quotation 6, preceding, mentions that dharmas
will come to an end when the false mind ceases to
exist, and quotation 7 declares that dharmas arise
out of the false mind. Both citations give the
impression that the mind constituting the ultimate
reality in Hui-yuan's ontology is defiled in nature.
However, Hui-yuan affirms very emphatically in the
Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin lun i-su(g) (Commentary on the
Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin lun(h), henceforth abbreviated
to Commentary) that to talk of things proceeding
from false thoughts is provisional, whereas in
truth, all dharmas evolve from the
true-consciousness (chen-shih(i)):

By "all dharmas", [the Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin lun]
refers to various dharmas [of the realm] of
samsaara. [The term "mind" in the phrase] "are
developed from the mind" refers to the
true-consciousness, As false [dharmas] do not exist
on their own but arise dependent on the true
[-mind], it is said that [dharmas] evolve from the
mind. [The term "false thoughts" in the clause] "are
produced by false thoughts" refers to the seventh
consciousness.(12) If we consider the immediate
[condition], dharmas pertaining to the samsaaric
[realm] are the products of false thoughts.(13)

In the same text, he outlines three ways of
apprehending the truth of mind-only, culminating in
the contemplation of the true-mind as the foundation
of all beings, including the false mind:

There are three kinds of contemplation:

1. The contemplation of false appearances:

It perceives that the three realms(14) are false
appearances proceeding from the mind only, just
like objects produced in dreams. Equipped with
the idea of nonexistence, [it comprehends that]
there is ultimately no dharma outside the mind.

2. The contemplation of false thoughts:

It perceives that what the false mind constructs
is without substance and comes into being
dependent on the true [mind], just as waves are
dependent on water....

3. The contemplation of the true [-mind]:

It perceives that all dharmas without exception
originate and are formed from the true [-mind],
and other than the true [-mind], there is
absolutely nothing which can give rise to false
thoughts. Since nothing [other than the
true-mind] can give rise to false thoughts, even
the false mind [to which common sense attributes
the production of false thoughts] is in truth
nonexistent.(15)

In one place, he speaks of the tathaagatagarbha, the
other name for the truemind, as the basis of our
everyday world of name and form.(16) In another

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instance, he refers to the tathaagatagarbha as the
"substance, " with the realms of sa.msaara and
nirvaa.na as its "functions."(17) All in all,
"mind-only" in Hui-yuan's system of thought denotes
in final analysis the ontological dependence of all
phenomenal beings whether physical or mental on the
intrinsically pure mind which every sentient being
originally possesses. This thesis, in Hui-yuan's
opinion, represents the most profound as well as the
most truthful interpretation of the nature of
reality in Buddhism.

II. THE SYSTEM OF EIGHT CONSCIOUSNESSES (1): THE
AALAYA-CONSCIOUSNESS OR THE EIGHTH CONSCIOUSNESS

In Hui-yuan's writings, the idea of mind-only is
couched in the framework of the theory of eight
consciousnesses, which testifies abundantly to the
Yogaacaara as well as the Ti-lun descent of his
teaching.(18) According to Hui-yuan, depending on
how one approaches the matter, the mind of each
sentient being can be viewed as one totality, or be
analyzed into two, three, four, and up to sixty or
even more aspects.(19) However, influenced by the
La^nkaavataara-suutra, Hui-yuan favors the scheme of
eight consciousnesses:

The idea of [the existence of] eight consciousnesses
comes from the La^naavataara-suutra. Thus, in the
sutra, [the Bodhisattva] Mahaamati addresses the
Buddha. "World-honored one! Do you establish [the
theory of] eight consciousnesses?" The Buddha says
"I establish it." (T, vol. 16, p. 496a, 11.21-22)
What we call "consciousness" is the other name for
"mental congnition" (shen-chih(j)). Examined from
[different] perspectives, the number of
consciousnesses become innumerable, but we now adopt
one interpretation, and discuss eight types [of
consciousnesses]. What are the names of these eight?
They are: (i) eye-consciousness, (ii)
ear-consciousness, (iii) nose-consciousness, (iv)
tongue-consciousness, (v) body-consciousness, (vi)
mind-consciousness, (vii) aadaana-consciousness, and
(viii) aalaya-consciousness.(20)

The nature of the eight consciousnesses can be
inferred from their names:

The first six of the eight [consciousnesses] receive
their names from the senseorgans [with which they
are associated], whereas the last two express
[different aspects of] the substance [of the mind].
The sense organs are namely eye, ear, nose, tongue,
body, and mind. When we apprehend consciousness from
these [six perspectives], we thereby come to have
[the first] six types [of consciousness]. Since the
substance [of the mind] includes [both aspects of]
the true and the false, it is further divided into
two.(21)

When the mind functions in connection with the six
organs of eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and
mind,(22) it is known as the eye-consciousness,
ear-consciousness, nose-consciousness,
tongue-consciousness, body-consciousness, and
mind-consciousness, respectively. In itself, the
mind includes both aspects of the true and the
false, which make up the aalaya-consciousness and
the aadana-consciousness, respectively. Thus,
altogether, we come to have a scheme of eight
consciousnesses. In this section, we shall take up
the aalaya-consciousness first.

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The word "aalaya," judged from its Sanskrit root
a-/li (to adhere, to cling), suggests a propensity
for attachment and so denotes something which ought
to be transformed by proper religious practices.
Such is the conception of the aalaya found in such
standard Indian Yogaacaara works as the
Yogaacaaryabhuumi-`sastra, the
Mahaayaanasa.mgraha-`saastra, and the
Tri.m`sikaavij~napti-kaarikaa, in which the
aalaya-consciousness is given as the subject of
transmigration, the origin of the realm of samsaara,
and the repository of karmic effects both pure and
impure.(23) Hui-yuan, on the other hand, due to his
Ti-lun upbringing, considers the "aalaya" as
standing for the true aspect of the mind.(24)
Speaking on the meaning of the term "aalaya,"
Hui-yuan writes in the Ta-ch'eng i chang(k)
(Essentials of the Mahaayaana, henceforth
abbreviated to Essentials):

"AAlaya", rendered literally into our language,
means "never loses." That is, it never loses [its
true nature] even when [transmigrating] in [the
realm of] samsara.(25)

This definition is followed by a long list of names
considered by Hui-yuan to be equivalent to the
"aalaya":

When rendered freely according to its significance,
[the aalaya] is known by eight different names:

1. It is known as the tsang-shih(l)
(storehouse-consciousness) , for this
consciousness is the tsang (embryo, garbha) of
the tathaagata....(26)

2. It is known as the sheng-shih(m)
(holy-conciousness), for it is the basis of the
activities of the great sages.

3. It is known as the ti-i-i shih(n) (supreme
consciousness), for it is [in nature] the most
excellent....

4. It is known as the ching-shih(o)
(pure-consciousness), also as the wu-kou shih(p)
(nondefiled consciousness), for its substance can
never be soiled....

5. It is known as the chen-shih(q)
(true-consciousness), for it is in essence devoid
of falsehood....

6. It is known as the chen-ju shih(r)
(tathataa-consciousness), as is explained in the
[Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin] lun: "Since the essence of
the mind cannot be destroyed, it is known as
chen. Since [the mind is self-sufficient and
depends on the sustenance of nothing, it is known
as ju." (T, vol. 32, p. 576a, 11. 15-16)

7. It is known as the chia-shih(s)
(home-consciousness), also as the chai-shih(t)
(residence-consciousness), for it acts as the
support of false dharmas.

8. It is known as the pen-shih(u)
(root-consciousness) , for it constitutes the
ground of the false mind.(27)

From the above inventory of synonyms of the
aalaya,(28) it is evident that in Hui-yuan yuan's
system of thought, the aalaya-consciousness denotes
the tathaagatagarbha (1), that is, the intrinsically
pure consciousness (3, 4), which may be overlaid
with defilements but can never be soiled in essence
(5). This consciousness is eternal (6), and is the
origin of both the physical and mental aspects of
the phenomenal world (7, 8). As the basis of all
religious activities, it makes possible the
attainment of the supreme enlightenment (2). Every
sentient being possesses this immaculate principle,
as Hui-yuan emphasizes in the Commentary:

With respect to deeds, the common man and the sage
are different, each [creat-

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ing] his own causes and [reaping] his own fruits.
With respect to [inner] principle, however, they are
the same and [are of] one flavor. This principle
does not diminish in the case of the two vehicles
[the `sraavakas and the pratyekabuddhas), nor does
it augment in the cases of the buddhas and
bodhisattvas.(29)

In his discussion of the true-consciousness
which is the aalaya, Hui-yuan follows the Ta-ch'eng
ch'i-hsin lun, and analyses it into the three
aspects of substance (t'i(v) ) , characteristics
(hsiang(w)), and function (yung(x)):(30)

Regarding the true-consciousness, it can be divided
into three aspects, that is, substance,
characteristics, and function. With respect to
"substance," the true-consciousness is known as the
tathataa, which is profound, tranquil, and equal.
Being the final reality (ju-ju(y)) which is of one
flavor, it remains self-same whether when hidden or
when manifested, whether amidst defilements or [the
state of] purity. It remains placid at all times,
and falls neither under [the category of] cause nor
under [the category of] effect. With respect to
"characteristics, " this consciousness is the
cognitive mind pertaining to [the realm of] the
tathaagatagarbha, and is constituted of
buddha-dharmas [as numerous as] the sand of the
Ganges; just as the cognitive mind pertaining to
[the realm of] worldly dharmas is constituted of
[the features of] pain and impermanence. When this
true mind is in [the state of] falsehood, its
[excellent] characteristics are obscured and [so] is
described as "defiled." When it is freed from the
bonds of defilement, it is counted as "pure." When
its pure characteristics are not yet fully
[restored], it is known as the "cause." When its
pure characteristics are perfected, it is known as
the "effect".... As for "function, " when the
true-consciousness is in a defiled state, it is
allied to false thoughts and produces [the realm of]
sa.msaara. When it is in a pure condition, it
produces [various] deeds of virtue in response to
[the vices it is trying to] eliminate. When the
deeds of virtue are not yet perfected, this mind is
known as the "cause" of expedient acts. When the
deeds of virtue come to final completion, it is
known as the "effect" of expedient acts.(31)

By the aspect "substance, " Hui-yuan means the
true-consciousness as it is in itself. As such, it
is the "final reality" which is "profound, tranquil,
and equal." Being eternal and immutable, it is above
all distinctions, and so the appellations "cause"
and "effect" are not applicable to it. By the aspect
"characteristics," Hui-yuan refers to the manifested
features of the true-consciousness when it is in
interaction with worldly dharmas. Unlike worldly
dharmas which are stamped with the marks of pain and
impermanence, the true-consciousness possesses all
the excellent attributes of the tathaagatagarbha.
When these excellent attributes are obscured by
worldly dharmas, the true-consciousness is described
as "defiled" or the "cause." When all impure
influences are removed, the true-consciousness is
described as "pure" or the "fruit." So, it comes
about that such terms as "defiled," "cause," and
"effect" can be used to represent the
true-consciousness in its relation with the mundane
world, even when it is understood that they are not
appropriate descriptions of the true-consciousness
as it is in itself. By the aspect "function,"
Hui-yuan alludes to the true-consciousness as the
ontological ground of both the realms of sa.msaara
and nirvaa.na. When the true-consciousness is allied
to false thoughts, it is the source of the
origination of mundane existences. When considered
in connection with

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virtuous deeds, it constitutes the "cause" as well
as the "effect" of opportune religious practices.

Besides telling us what the true-consciousness
or the aalaya is, Hui-yuan also informs us what the
true-consciousness or the aalaya is not. Hui-yuan
mentions several misconceptions of the nature and
functions of the aalaya, which he classifies into
two categories: those connected with the notion of
"being" (yu(z)), and those connected with the notion
of "nonbeing" (wu(aa)).(33) Under the first heading,
he mentions the following errors:

1. There are those who, on hearing that the
true-consciousness is the "self," identify it
with the eternal soul or aatman taught by the
non-Buddhists. To counteract this
misunderstanding, Hui-yuan declares that "the
tathaagatagarbha is neither the aatman, nor
sentient beings, nor [the force of] life, nor the
pudgala."(34)

2. There are those who, on hearing that both the
realms of sa.msaara.a and nirvaa.na originate
from the true-consciousness, think that the
true-consciousness is composed of defiled as well
as nondefiled elements. Quoting the Ta-ch'eng
ch'i-hsin lun, Hui-yuan stresses that "the
tathaatagarbha is intrinsically pure. It contains
from the beginning only pure buddha-dharmas [as
numerous as] the sand of the Ganges, and is never
soiled."(35)

3. There are those, who, on hearing that the
true-consciousness is resplendent in excellent
qualities, imagines that it is composite in
nature. Again citing the Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin lun,
Hui-yuan reminds us that the tathataa which is
the true mind transcends all differences, even
including the difference of tran-scendence and
nontranscendence. We described the
true-consciousness as endowed with myriads of
merits in order to contrast it with the everyday
world of defilements, whereas in truth, all
excellent qualities give up their individuality
to constitute one nature in the pure mind, so
much so that no distinction can be made of them
any longer.(36)

4. There are those who, on hearing that the
tathaagatagarha is the ground of sa.msaara,
thinks that there is a particular point in time
at which the pure-consciousness begins to give
rise to the sa.msaaric realm. Furthermore, they
reason that this tendency of the
pure-consciousness to give rise to the realm of
sa.msaara does not cease with the attainment of
nirvaa.na, and when it is again in operation, the
nirvaa.na once reached will come to an end. Once
more drawing upon the Ta-ch'eng ch'i hsin lun,
Hui-yuan underlines that the tathaagatagarbha
"has neither a beginning nor an end, " and
explains: Since the tathaagatagarbha has no
beginning and is the ground of sa.msaara,
sa.msaara [also] has no beginning....Since the
tathaagatagarbha has no end and is the ground of
nirvaa.na, nirvaa.na [also] has no end.(37)

By the misconception connected with the notion of
"nonbeing," Hui-yuan refers to the thesis that the
concept "tathaagatagarbha" denotes nothing more than
the truth of the empty nature of all beings:

There are people who declare that the truth of the
empty [nature] of dharmas is the true-consciousness.
To correct this error, we assert that the
tathaagatagarbha is truly nonempty. As the
[true]-consciousness embodies buddha-dharmas [as
numerous as] the sand of the Ganges, how can it be
taken as [totally] empty? .... When the
La^nkaavataara-suutra applies [the concept of]
no-self to the tathaagatagarbha (T, vol. 16, p.
489b) . it alludes to the fact that the
tathaagatagarbha is called empty because it is
without false discriminations,

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[without implying that] there exist no true dharmas.
So the Vij~naptimaatrasiddhi maintains that in order
to put an end to the non-Buddhists' attachment to
[the idea of] the self and things pertaining to the
self, it is taught that matter and all kinds of
dharmas are empty, but this does not mean that the
"realm of reality" (ju-shih ching(ab) ) which
transcends common speech is empty as well.(38) The
"realm of reality" is the sphere of the buddhas and
tathaagatas, in which no consciousness other than
the storehouse-consciousness (the aalaya)
exists.(39)

Unlike the Maadhyamikas who are skeptical of
metaphysical speculation and do not acknowledge any
entity as ontologically primary, the Yogaacaarins
propound a philosophy of ideation-only, in which all
phenomenal beings are regarded as projections of the
original mind. While Hui-yuan departs from orthodox
Indian Yogaacaarism in his understanding of the
moral species and functions of this original mind,
the Yogaacaara descent of his teaching comes out
conspicuously in the above criticism of the
interpretation of the concept of
"true-consciousness" as the truth of emptiness, an
interpretation with a distinct Maadhyamika
undertone. In opposition to this non-Yogaacaara
understanding of the teaching of mind-only, Hui-yuan
upholds that "emptiness" when connoting
"nonexistence" is appropriate only in reference to
beings of the realm of sa.msaara. When applied to
the true-consciousness or the tathaagatagarbha,
"emptiness" merely alludes to the freedom from all
false discriminations of the true mind, and does not
carry any sense of denial of its existence:

Some people expound that the true-consciousness does
not denote [an actual] consciousness but only
[stands] for the principle of emptiness. [Since
emptiness] is the essence of consciousness, we call
it by the name "consciousness" by way of inference.
Such a view is the extreme of absurdity, and should
not be accepted. It is the real, cognitive mind
which is called the [true]-consciousness. How can it
be said that [the mind] is totally empty?(40)

That the tenet of the "true-consciousness" is not
merely a soteriological device or a more picturesque
way of expressing a general truth, but actually
stipulates the existence of a veritable entity, is a
point which Hui-yuan returns to again and again in
his writings. When discussing the question of
"extinction" and "nonextinction" of the true-mind,
Hui-yuan observes:

When false [dharmas] are completely annihilated, the
[activities of the] true [mind] also come to an end,
and will never arise again. So it is said that the
[true-mind] is extinct. [However], since the
substance of the true [mind] will abide forever, we
[also] say that the true [mind] is not extinct.(41)

Commenting on the remark of the Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin
lun that "When we speak of cessation [of the mind,
we refer to] the cessation of its marks (hsiang(w)),
not the cessation of its substance (t'i(v)),"(42)
Hui-yuan writes in the Commentary:

By "When we speak of cessation of the mind, we refer
to the cessation of its marks," [the `Saastra]
alludes to [the cessation of] the false
consciousnesses. By "not to the cessation of its
substance, " [the Saastra] alludes to [the
non-cessation of] the true-consciousness. The fact
that the false consciousnesses can be completely
destroyed does not prevent the [true]-consciousness
from existing

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[eternally], Since the true-consciousness exists
eternally, sentient beings are not annihilated [with
the extinction of the false consciousnesses]. Since
the false consciousnesses will eventually be
extirpated, sentient beings [will sooner or later]
fulfill the true [end of Buddhahood].(43)

III. THE SYSTEM OF EIGHT CONSCIOUSNESS (2): THE
AADAANA-CONSCIOUSNESS OR THE SEVENTH CONSCIOUSNESS

Besides the aalaya or the eighth consciousness,
Hui-yuan also mentions the aadaana-consciousness as
a distinctive element in the picture of reality of
Mahaayaana Buddhism. Hui-yuan defines the term
"aadaana" as follows:

"AAdaana," rendered literally into our language,
means "not [yet] emancipated" (wu-chieh(ac)). That
is, it is essentially an ignorant and deluded
mind.(44)

This definition concurs with the meaning of the
Sanskrit root of aadaana: a-/daa (to take, to seize,
to draw near to oneself), and is similar to the
explanations given of the term in the
Sa.mdhinirmocan-suutra, the
Mahaayaanasa.mgraha-`saastra, and the Ch'eng
wei-shih lun(ad).(45) However, in the aforementioned
works, the aadaana is considered as the other name
for the aalaya, denoting primarily the latter's
roles as the support of the material organs and the
repository of karmic effects.(46) Since in
Hui-yuan's ontological scheme, the aalaya has been
transformed into a pure consciousness, the term
aadaana, with its derogatory sense of "to hold" and
"to grasp," is clearly no longer appropriate as its
designation. Thus, following the precedence of
Paramaartha (499-569), the founder of the She-lun
School,(47) Hui-yuan uses the term "aadaana" to
refer to the seventh consciousness. As with the
aalaya, Hui-yuan's conception of the aadaana or the
seventh consciousness can be discerned from his
exposition of its synonyms:

When rendered freely according to its significance,
[the aadaana] is known by eight different names:

1. It is known as the ignorant consciousness
(wu-ming shih(ae)), for it is in essence the
ground of the original ignorance.(48)

2. It is known as the activity-consciousness
(yeh-shih(af)), for owing to [the functioning of]
the ignorant mind, false thoughts [pertaining to
the realm of] nonenlightenment are suddenly set
in motion.

3. It is known as the evolving-consciousness
(chuan-shih(ag)), for owing to [the functioning
of] the aforementioned activity-consciousness, it
gradually assumes gross characteristics, giving
rise to external phenomena which it [in turn]
discriminates and lays hold of.

4. It is known as the reproducing-consciousness
(hsien-shih(ah)), for the false objects [the
evolving-consciousness] give rise to reproducing
[the defiled state of] the mind itself, just as a
bright mirror reproduces the appearances of object
[placed in front of it]

5. It is known as the
congnitive-consciousness(chih-shih(ai)), for it
distinguishes between the defiled and the
nondefiled, the disagreeable and the agreeable
[and so forth] among objects reproduced by the
above-mentioned "reproducing-consciousness."
"Cognition" here denotes [a kind of] dull, false
discernment, not wisdom [which is conducive to]
understanding and deliverance.

6. It is known as the continuous-consciousness
(hsiang-hsu shih(aj), for en-

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chained by false appearances, it complies with
the world of objects and grasps at it
incessantly. Furthermore, it can retain karmic
effects good or evil.

7. It is known as the false-consciousness
(wang-shih(ak) ) , for the six forms [of
consciousness](l-6) mentioned above are all [in
nature] untrue.

8. It is known as the clinging-consciousness
(chih-shih(al)), for it clings to [the idea of]
the self, and also clings to all false
appearances.(49)

According to the account just given, the
aadaana-consciousness, being "the ground of the
original ignorance" (1) and the cause of the
production of "false thoughts" and "false objects"
(2, 3, & 4), is the source of defilements and
nonenlightenment (7) . Its function is to
discriminate (5), and it clings to the idea of the
self and false appearances (6 & 8) . As the
repository of karmic effects good or evil (6), it
ensures the never failing operation of the law of
retribution and is the subject of
transmigration.(50)

Of the many analyses Hui-yuan makes of the
aadaana or the seventh con-sciousness, the division
into the four characteristics of "function," "self,"
"ignorance," and "principle" is among the most
illuminating. By the characteristic "function, "
Hui-yuan has in mind the aadaana as the direct cause
of the arising of the first six consciousnesses
(eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness,
nose-consciousness, tongue-consciousness,
body-consciousness, and mind-consciousness) and
their corresponding sense-organs (eye, ear, nose,
tongue, body, and mind) and sense-objects (color,
sound, smell, taste, touch, and ideas):

Regarding the four [characteristics] of the
"false-[consciousness] (the aadaana), the first is
the characteristic "function," which is [connected
with] the [first] six consciousnesses. The false
mind generates the [six] sense-organs, [six]
sense-objects, and [six] consciousnesses, just like
the appearances created in dreams. In this respect,
the false-[consciousness] gives rise to the [first]
six consciousnesses, which, with the six
sense-organs arising from the same mind [as
support], apprehend the six sense-objects [likewise]
arising from this same mind, and so is described as
"function."(51)

The characteristic "self" indicates the aadaana's
erroneous tendencies to regard objects originating
from its own activities as possessing independent
essences and to draw a fast line between itself and
other sentient beings.(52) "Ignorance" intimates in
general the deluded essence of the aadaana:

The third is the characteristic "ignorance," which
refers to [the false-consciousness as] the ground of
ignorance. As the nonenlightened mind, it fails to
realize the tathataa and also can not comprehend
that [all] productions of the false mind are
illusory and nonexistent.(53)

The characteristic "principle" represents the
aadaana-consciousness as it actually is: "neither
being nor nonbeing":

As for the fourth characteristic, "principle," it
refers to [the fact that the false-consciousness,
which is endowed with] the aforementioned three
characteristics, is [in essence] "neither being nor
nonbeing." [The false-consciousness] is said to be
"neither being," for [all] false forms are without
substance. It is said to be "nor nonbeing," for it
generates all sorts of false affections. Again, it
is called "neither being, " for the [six]
sense-organs, [six] sense-objects and [six]

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consciousnesses originating from this [false] mind
[are ephemeral and] do not exist apart from the
mind. It is called "nor nonbeing," for this false
mind has [the six sense-organs, six sense-objects,
and six-consciousnesses] as its illusory
manifestations.(54)

The aadaana or false-consciousness can be denoted as
"nor nonbeing," for it is the origin of "false
affections" and the cause of the appearance of the
six senseorgans, six sense-objects, and the six
consciousnesses. Yet, it can also be designated as
"neither being," for like all "false forms," it
relies entirely on the ture-consciousness or the
aalaya for its existence, and the sense-organs,
sense-objects, and consciousnesses which it gives
rise to also enjoy no independent being outside the
true mind. Lest anyone on reading such passages as
quotations 49 and 51 preceding would misunderstand
that the aadaana-conscoiousness is the first reality
and can generate the entire phenomenal world on its
own, Hui-yuan is especially careful to remind us of
this "neither being" aspect of the aadaana. So he
declares that "the false self (aadaana) arises
dependent on the true self (aalaya),"(55) and that
the false-consciousness is ultimately speaking as
much a phenomenal entity as the objects it helps to
create, being itself "a transient dharma" dependent
on the true-consciousness for its being.(56)

Again, as in the case of the aalaya, as much can
be learned of the aadaana-consciousness from what
Hui-yuan says it is not, as from what he says it is.
Hui-yuan enumerates six principal misconceptions
regarding the aadaana-consciousness:(57)

1. There are those who, on hearing that there are
only the six sense-organs eye, ear, nose, and so
forth, conclude thereby that there can only be
six consciousnesses, and that there can exist no
other consciousness to which no senseorgan
corresponds. Against this view, Hui-yuan argues
that there ought to be a seventh consciousness
besides the first six consciousnesses, for if it
were not so, the `sraavakas and pratyekabuddhas
would achieve full buddhahood when they enter the
"nirvaa.na without residue," for or at the time
they reach this state, their six consciousnesses
would be completely annihilated, and there would
remain no impure element to bind them to the
domain of samsaara. As no Mahaayaanists would
ever grant the fulfillment of the supreme
enlightenment to these Hiinayaana saints, so it
should be admitted that other than the six
consciousnesses, there subsists a further impure
consciousness, that is, the aadaana, which
explains why the `sraavakas and pratyekabuddhas
remain rooted in the course of mundane
existence, even while they have already put an
end to the defilement-generating activities of
the first six consciousnesses.

2. There are those who, on hearing that there is a
seventh consciousness, conclude thereby that it
is a self-sufficient entity. Against this view,
Hui-yuan argues that this false-consciousness
represents merely the nonenlightened and
discriminating aspect of the mind, and possesses
no substance of its own. To illustrate the case,
Hui-yuan resorts to the much cited metaphor of
the rope mistaken as a snake. Just as the snake
so envisaged is constructed from the rope and is
illusory, the same is true of the aadaana, which
is constructed from the true mind and is
ephemeral like dreams.

3. There are those, who, on hearing that the
seventh consciousness is also known as the manas
(mind), identify it with the manas-indriya (mind
sense-

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organ),(58) which, together with the first six
consciousnesses, are known as the "seven mental
realms" in Hiinayaana Buddhism. Hui-yuan rejects
this view for the same reason he gives in (1):
that is, if what is maintained is true, the
`sraavakas and pratyekabuddhas would be able to
reach the supreme enlightenment, for it is
commonly agreed that the manas-indriya is
destroyed along with the six consciousnesses when
the "nirvana without residue" is attained.

4. There are those who think that the term "seventh
consciousness" represents only the failure of the
first six consciousnesses to perceive that all
phenomena are without self-nature, and nothing
more. Against this view, Hui-yuan argues that the
failure to comprehend the absence of self-nature
of phenomena is the more apparent sort of
ignorance allied to the first six
consciousnesses, whereas there is a more
fundamental and subtle kind of ignorance
connected with the attachment to the idea of the
self and the nonapprehension of the truth of
mind-only, which the "seventh consciousness"
stands for.

5. There are those who maintain that the seventh
consciousness is transient and subjected to
changes only when the final truth is not yet
comprehended; but it will be transformed into an
eternal and immutable entity once enlightenment
is attained. Against this view, Hui-yuan argues
that "the seventh consciousness is a false mind.
It is characterized by nothing but delusions, and
consists of nothing but discriminations."(60)
Since all delusions would vanish and all
discriminations would be forsaken on the
fulfillment of the supreme enlightenment, how can
there remain a seventh consciousness devoid of
all its essential properties? Thus, Hui-yuan
concludes that "When people say that the essence
of wisdom is immutable, what they refer to by the
immutable essence is the true mind, not the
seventh consciousness."(61)

6. There are those who, on hearing that the seventh
consciousness will eventually be destroyed,
judge that it is a total nonetity with no
specific function. Against this view, Hui-yuan
insists that it is solely due to the permeation
of the aadaana that the aalaya or the eighth
consciousness gives rise to the phenomenal
world.

IV. THE SYSTEM OF EIGHT CONSCIOUSNESSES (3): THE
FIRST SIX CONSCIOUSNESSES

If the aalaya-consciousness and the
aadaana-consciousness are concepts peculiar to
Yogaacaara Buddhism, and Hui-yuan's incorporation of
them into his ontological scheme is a clear
indication of the Yogaacaara background of his
thought, the first six consciousnesses, that is,
eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness,
nose-consciousness, tongue-consciousness,
body-consciousness, and mind-consciousness, on the
other hand already appeared frequently in the early
Nikaayas as six of the eighteen dhaatus, and as such
they are concepts common to all Buddhist schools,
Hiinayaana and Mahaayaana alike. The following is
Hui-yuan's explanation of how the first six
consciousnesses get their respective names:

With respect to the first six [of the eight
consciousnesses], the [sense-organ] corresponding
with "color" is known as the "eye," and so forth,
[the sense-organ] corresponding with "dharma" is
known as the "mind." Since the mind which arises
with these [sense-organs] as the basis are capable
of discernment, it is called the eye-consciousness,
and so forth, down to the mind-consciousness.(62)

Hui-yuan often calls the first six consciousnesses
as a group the "phenomenal

P362

consciousnesses" (shih-shih(am)), in the same way as
he often designates the aadaana "the
false-consciousness'' and the aalaya "the
true-consciousness"; and has the following to say
about them in the Essentials:

What is called "phenomenal consciousnesses" [here]
are known as the "evolving consciousnesses"
(chuan-shih) in the La^nkaavataara-suutra (T, vol.
16, p. 463b, 1.1.), and the "manas [dependent]
consciousnesses" (i-shih(an)), the "discriminating
manas [-dependent] consciousnesses" (fen-pieh
i-shih(ao)), the "differentiated consciousnesses"
(li-shih(ap) ) , or the "phenomena-discriminating
consciousnesses" (fen-peih-shih-shih(aq)), in the
[Ta-ch'eng] ch'i-hsin lun. (T, vol. 32, p. 577b,
11.24-27)

They are called the "evolving consciousnesses"
because they evolve together with the six
sense-objects; unlike the false-consciousness
(aadaana), which is called "evolving consciousness"
because it produced the external world. They are
called the "manas" [-dependent] consciousnesses,"
because in the [Ta-ch'eng] ch'i-hsin lun, the eighth
true-consciousness is given the name citta, and the
seventh [false-consciousness] is given the name
manas. Since [the first six phenomenal
consciousnesses] arise with the manas [as their
immediate cause], they are [thereby] referred to as
the "manas [-dependent] consciousnesses." Since the
[manas] dependent consciousnesses discriminate the
[external] world of six sense-objects, they are also
known as the "discriminating manas [-dependent]
consciousnesses." Since they are differentiated into
six, corresponding to the [six] sense-organs and
[six] sense-objects, they are known as the
"differentiated consciousnesses." Since they
discriminate the phenomenal world of six
sense-objects, they are also known as the
"phenomena-discriminating consciousnesses."(63)

This list of synonyms of the term "phenomenal
consciousnesses" shows the following facts of the
first six consciousnesses:

1. The name "manas-dependent consciousnesses"
suggests that the first six consciousnesses are
dependent on the seventh consciousness (and so
ultimately on the eighth consciousness) for their
being. So Hui-yuan remarks a little later in the
Essentials:

The false self (seventh consciousness) arises
dependent on the true self (eighth
con-sciousness), for attachment to the self comes
into being when the true [mind] is permeated by
false [thoughts].(64) The phenomenal self (first
six consciousnesses) [in turn] arises dependent
on the false self (seventh con-sciousness) ,
resulting in a further deepening of fatuous
discrimination. It is so because the phenomenal
self regards sense-organs and sense-objects as
things with determinate nature. It is so also
because the phenomenal self wrongly attributes
[the ideas of] "self" and "properties pertaining
to the self" to skandhas originating from the
false mind (seventh consciousness).(65)

2. The name "evolving-consciousnesses" suggests that
the first six consciousnesses "evolve" only in
the presence of the six sense-objects color,
sound, smell, and so forth. From this fact, we
can further infer that the first six
consciousnesses, unlike the seventh and eight
consciousnesses, are not always in operation, for
experience shows that the six sense-objects are
seldom available all at once. The Essentials
specifies in detail the various conditions that
have to be satisfied before the first six
consciousnesses will function:

The first six phenomenal consciousnesses are
called "distinct" (pieh(ar)), while the seventh
and eighth [consciousnesses] are called "common"
(t'ung(as)). The first six [consciousnesses] are
known as "distinct," for each has its specific

P363

object, and arises one after the other. The
seventh and eighth consciousnesses are known as
"common," for they exist always.

It is asked, "Why do the first six
[consciousnesses] arise one after the other [and
do not come into being together]? " [It is
replied, ] "In the case of the first six
[consciousnesses], the mind and its object are
[conceived of as] distinct entities. Being
difficult to apprehend, we know their presence
only by the thoughts they give rise to. Since the
thoughts they give rise to are diverse, [we
conclude thereby that] the [first] six
[consciousnesses] arise separately and not all at
once.

Furthermore, the first six consciousnesses are
produced on the satisfaction of four conditions,
that is, causal condition (hetu-pratyaya) ,
consequent condition (samanantara-pratyaya) ,
cooperating condition (aalambana-pratyaya), and
efficient condition (adhipati-pratyaya) , [With
respect to the first six consciousnesses,] the six
sense-organs are the efficient condition, the six
sense-objects are the cooperating condition, the
preceding moments of thought which [by ceasing]
facilitate the emergance of the subsequent [moments
of thought] are the consequent condition, and the
homogeneous [cause] (sabhaagahetu) , associated
[cause] (samprayukta-hetu), and simultaneous [cause]
(sahabhuu-hetu) , and so forth are the causal
condition.(66) Since it is impossible that [all the
conditions for the production of the] six types [of
consciousness] are present at one time, [we know
thereby that the first six consciousnesses] are the
consequent conditions [of each other] and cannot
arise simultaneously."(67)

The first six consciousnesses are mental
functions which come into play only on the
realization of four conditions, that is, causal
condition, consequent condition, cooperating
condition, and efficient condition. For example,
the eye-consciousness only comes into being when
there exists the sense-organ "eye" as its inner
support (efficient condition) and the sense
object "color" as its outer support (cooperating
condition). Furthermore, there must also be the
presence of light to illuminate the color
sense-object (causal condition), as well as the
nonpresence of the other five consciousnesses
which would obstruct its operation (consequent
condition). Since these conditions are not always
fulfilled, the eye-consciousness, unlike the
seventh and eighth consciousnesses, does not
abide permanetly, but comes and goes as
circumstances change. And the same is true of the
ear-consciousness, nose-consciousness,
tongue-consciousness, and so forth.

3. The names "discriminating manas-dependent
consciousnesses, " "differentiated
consciousnesses," and "phenomena-discriminating
consciousnesses" suggest that the first six
consciousnesses are concerned with the
discernment of sense-objects and the attribution
of definite nature to them despite their
mind-dependent character. This tendency of the
first six consciousnesses to ascribe determinate
being to phenomena is dwelt on repeatedly in the
Essentials. Thus, in explaining why the first six
consciousnesses and the seventh consciousness are
likewise depicted as "false," Hui-yuan writes:

With respect to the false [aspect of the mind],
the first six [consciousnesses] are deceived by
conditioned and illusory dharmas, and wrongly
consider them [as entities] with determinate
nature. So they are described as "false." The
seventh false-consciousness wrongly considers
[dharmas] as possessing definite characteristics,
even though there [actually] exists no dharma
outside the mind. So it is [also described as]
false.(68)

The seventh consciousness is described as
"false," for it stands for the general failure of
sentient beings to realize the truth of
mind-only, which leads to the false belief in the
reality of the phenomenal. The first six consci-

P364

ousnesses are also described as "false," for
under the influence of the false belief formet by
the seventh consciousness, they seize on objects
appearing in their particular fields of
perception as entities possessing independent
being, and attribute names and get attached to
them. The result naturally is the production of
defiled karma and bondage to the realm of
samsaara. So, quoting the Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin
lun, Hui-yuan imputes the four features of
"sepculating on names," "attachment," "producing
karma," and "suffering owing to bondage to karma"
to the first six consciousnesses:

As for the four aspects of the phenomenal
consciousnesses, they are as mentioned in the
[Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin] (T, vol. 33, p. 577a):

(1) The feature of attachment: This feature is
also called "the taint which is related to
attachment" in the [Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin] lun.(69)
It refers to that basic ignorance which holds on
to [everchanging phenomena as objects with]
determinate nature.

(2) The feature of speculating on names: [This
feature is connected with] the so called ten
fundamental defilements.(70) Following the
suggestion of names, [the ideas of] the self,
sentient beings, and so forth, and give rise to
various bonds. So they are said to have the
feature of speculating on names.

( 3) The feature of producing karma: Owing to its
defiled [activities], [the phenomenal
consciousnesses] produced all sorts of [evil]
karma.

(4) The feature of suffering owing to bondage to
karma: [The phenomenal consciousnesses] receive
the fruit [of suffering] according to the karma
[they create].(71)

Again, as in the case of the aalaya and aadana,
Hui-yuan tries to define his conception of the first
six consciousnesses by referring to the
misconceptions of them. Altogether, Hui-yuan lists
eight erroneous views regarding the first six
consciousnesses, which he classifies into four pairs
of thesis and antithesis.(72) We shall outline the
first three pairs which are of immediate relevance
to our present purpose:

1. There is the opinion that the first six
consciousnesses are of one essence, and there is
also the opinion that the first six
consciousnesses are of different essence. Against
the former view, Hui-yuan argues that the first
six consciousnesses can not be absolutely one,
for the sense-organs and sense-objects they are
dependent on are diverse. Against the latter
view, Hui-yuan argues that the first six
consciousnesses are not absolutely different, for
if they were so, they would not hinder the
working of each other and would coexist at all
time, which is obviously not the case in actual
life.

2. There is the opinion that since the notion of an
enduring mind is necessary to the concepts of
transmigration and retribution, the first six
consciousnesses should be considered as
permanent. There is also the opinion that since
the Buddha has taught that all mental functions
are transitory, the first six consciousnesses
should be considered as impermanent. Against the
former view, Hui-yuan argues that the first six
consciousnesses can not be definitely permanent,
for the six consciousnesses of gods, men,
animals, hungry ghosts, and beings in hell are
heterogeneous, so that a sentient moving from one
of these forms of rebirth to another could not
have their first six consciousnesses remain
unchanged. Agains the latter view, Hui-yuan
argues that the first six consciousnesses can not
be definitely impermanent, for if the mind were
annihilated from moment to moment, who is to reap
the fruit of past deeds after all?(73)

3. There is the opinion that the first six
consciousnesses are definitely existent,

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and there is also the opinion that the first six
consciousnesses are absolutely empty. Against the
former view, Hui-yuan argues that the first six
consciousnesses can not be definitely existent,
for it is taught in the holy texts that
consciousnesses are subject to the four signs of
birth, subsistence, decay, and destruction.
Against the latter view, Hui-yuan argues that the
first six consciousnesses can not be absolutely
empty, for if there were not the first six
consciousnesses, how come there to be the
awareness and cognition of external objects? How
come there to be the production of good and evil
karma, and the experience of pleasure and pain
thereof?

V. THE RELATION BETWEEN THE TRUE AND THE FALSE: SOME
PROBLEMS OF THE MIND-ONLY TEACHING OF HUI-YUAN

In the preceding discussion, we have several times
indicated that it is Hui-yuan's belief that the
first seven consciousnesses and their objects, that
is, the entire defiled phenomenal world, owe their
being to the eighth consciousness, that is, the
intrinsically pure aalaya or the tathaagatagarbha.
That the defiled is ontologically dependent on the
pure can be inferred from the general thesis of
mind-only as outlined in section I, and it is a
truth which Hui-yuan repeatedly stresses in his
writings. So, commenting on the remark of the
Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin lun that "[Nonenlightened]
thoughts are not self-sufficient and do not exist
apart from the original enlightenment,"(74) Hui-yuan
observes in the Commentary:

That is to show that false dharmas do not exist on
their own, and are formed on the support of the true
[mind]. Without the true [mind], false [dharmas]
will not come into being.(75)

He further states in the Commentary that "the true
and the false are not separate from each other":

Question: The true and the false are in nature
different from each other. Why is it said that in
disciplining the false [consciousnesses], the true
[mind] is also permeated?

Answer: It is because the true and the false are not
separate from each other. Thus, when the false
[consciousnesses] are soiled, [the true mind] also
becomes soiled. When the false [consciousnesses] are
pure, [the true mind] also becomes pure....(76)

And this union of the true mind and false dharmas is
cited by Hui-yuan as exemplifying the Buddhist ideal
of nonduality:

As samsaara and nirvaa.na arise and are formed from
the true mind, "functions" (yung(g) , that is,
samsaara and nirvaa.na) do not exist apart from
"substance" (t'i(v), that is, the true mind). This
perfect harmony of "substance" and "function" is
known as [the truth of] nonduality.(77)

In this section, we shall try to see what arguments
Hui-yuan has offered to justify his idea of the
origination of the false from the true. Based on the
understanding so reached, we shall further attempt
to define what exactly the nonduality of the true
mind and false dharmas could mean in Hui-yuan's
teaching of mind-only.

P366

Thus, it may be asked how, if the
aalaya-consciousness is intrinsically pure, it could
ever come about that it would give rise to the
aadaana-consciousness, the first six
consciousnesses, and their respective objects, which
are defiled in nature. In explaining the derivation
of the impure from the pure, Hui-yuan brings in the
traditional Buddhist concept "ignorance."
"Ignorance," in Hui-yuan's own words, "is a deluded
and benighted [state of] mind. Since it is devoid of
(wu(at) the light (ming(au)) of wisdom, it is known
as ignorance (wu-ming(av) ) ."(78) This ignorance
permeates the pure mind, and brings about the
formation of defiled phenomena. So it is said:

[When the Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin lun writes that] "It
is solely due to false thoughts that
differentiations come about" (T, vol. 32, p. 576a,
11.9-10), what [the term] "false thoughts" refers to
is "ignorance." Due to the deluding influence of
ignorance on the tathataa (the pure mind in itself),
there comes to be [the origination of the realm of]
sa.msaara. It is just as flowers in the sky appear
to those who have ailments in the eyes, and
disappear when the ailments are cured. The same is
true of sentient beings who, due to the veil of
ignorance, falsely grasp at illusory [appearances of
the realm of] sa.msaara as actual existences, and
[as a result,] create all sorts of [evil] karmas and
experience all kinds of sufferings.(79)

Following closely the terminology and pattern of
exposition of the Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin lun, Hui-yuan
calls the pure mind contaminated by ignorance "the
mind's phenomenal aspect" (hsin sheng-mieh men(aw))
and the pure mind in itself "the mind's noumenal
aspect" (hsin cheng-ju men(ax)):

Next, we can divide the mind in two with respect to
its "substance" (t'i(v) ) and "characteristic"
(hsiang(w)). So it is stated in the [Ta-ch'eng]
ch'i-hsin lun [that the mind consists of two
aspects:] first, the noumenal aspect, which is the
essential nature of the mind, and secondly, the
phenomenal aspect, which is the characteristic of
the mind. Speaking of the true mind as it is in
itself, its real substance remains eternally
tranquil, equal, and self-same, and this is known as
the mind's noumenal aspect.... Speaking of the true
mind when it is governed by the false, it unites
with the false and serves as the condition for the
production and annihilation [of the false
phenomena]; and this is known as the mind's
phenomenal aspect.(80)

While Hui-yuan, faithful to the Ti-lun tradition
with which he is closely affiliated, often uses the
term "aalaya" to designate the true mind in general,
he sometimes reserves it specifically for the true
mind's phenomenal aspect, and postulates the name
"amala" to designate the true mind's noumenal
aspect:

The true [mind] can be subdivided into two
[consciousnesses]:

1. the amala-consciousness, which is called the
"nondefiled [conscansciousness], " also the
"intrinsically pure [consciousness]" in our
(Chinese) language.(81) Since [the amala] refers
to the true [mind] as it is in itself, which is
the true substance which is eternally pure, we
describe it as "nondefiled." It is none other
than the noumenal aspect of the mind [discussed]
above.

2. the aalaya-consciousness, which is called the
"imperishable consciousness" (wu-mo shih(ay)) in
our (Chinese) language. Since the aforementioned
true mind does not lose its [real] substance even
while transmigrating in [the

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realm of] falsehood, it is described as
"imperishable." So it is said in the [Ta-ch'eng]
ch'i-hsin lun: "When [the true mind], which is
not subject to birth and death, unites with
[falsehood], which is subject to birth and
death, we have what is known as the
aalaya-consciousness. (T, vol. 32, p. 576b,
11.8-9)(82)

If we add the amala and the aalaya to the aadaana
and the first six consciousnesses, we would come to
have a system of nine consciousnesses, as Hui-yuan
enumerates in the Essentials:

First, by analyzing [the mind] into [the two aspects
of] the true and the false, it is said that there
are nine consciousnesses. [Thus,] the false [aspect]
can be divided into seven [consciousnesses], that
is, the [first] six phenomenal consciousnesses and
the false consciousness (the aadaana). The true
[aspect] can be divided into two [consciousnesses],
that is, the amala and the aalaya as shown above. If
we add these [two consciousnesses] to the
aforementioned [seven], there are altogether nine
[consciousnesses].(83)

This system of nine consciousnesses, that is,
amala-consciousness, aalaya-consciousness,
aadaana-consciousness, and the first six
consciousnesses, was actually taught by the She-lun
masters of Hui-yuan's time. While Hui-yuan as a
Ti-lun master generally prefers to consider the
scheme of eight consciousnesses as orthodox,(84) he
also sees nothing seriously amiss with the idea of
the nine consciousnesses of the She-lun School.(85)
In fact, this system of nine consciousnesses is
adopted sometimes implicitly and sometimes
explicitly by Hui-yuan in his exposition of the
nature of the mind in the Essentials, in which
cases, the name "root consciousness" (pen-shih(u))
often replaces the "aalaya" as the appellation of
the phnomenal aspect of the true mind. To cite one
clear instance:

...the true mind (ninth consciousness), which is the
nature of the buddha, unites with ignorance to form
the root-consciousness, [also] known as the aalaya
(eighth consciousness) . Based on the root
[-consciousness], there evolves the aadaana (seventh
consciousness), the self-grasping mind. [Also] based
on the root [-consciousness], there evolve the six
[phenomenal] consciousnesses such as the eye
[-consciousness], as well as the six sense-organs
and [six] sense-objects.(86)

In the Commentary, the system of nine
consciousnesses even takes over the central stage,
and is used instead of the scheme of eight
consciousnesses as the basic framework around which
Hui-yuan constructs his theory of Reality.(87)

From the above account, it becomes adamantly
clear that the question of how the impure can be
derived from the pure is answered by Hui-yuan by
introducing a new factor into his ontology, that is,
ignorance. It is "ignorance" which works on the pure
mind and leads to the production of impure
phenomena. In order to illustrate how this happens,
Hui-yuan often resorts to the simile of ocean and
wind made famous by the La^nkaavataara-suutra and
the Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin lun:

It is just like ocean water which is stirred by the
wind. Even though the water and the wind are
inseparable, water is not by nature mobile. If the
wind stops, the movement [of the water] will cease;
and yet the wet nature [of the water] will remain
undestroyed.(88)

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Explaining the above passage of the Ta-ch'eng
ch'i-hsin lun in the Commentary, Hui-yuan writes:

"The ocean-water" [in the passage] stands for the
eighth consciousness, "the wind" stands for
ignorance, and "the waves" stand for the [first]
seven consciousnesses. [Just as] "the water and the
wind are inseparable", the true-consciousnesses and
ignorance [likewise] combine with the coming
together of relevant conditions. [Just as] "water is
not by nature mobile," the true [consciousnesses
likewise] does not have the nature of falsehood, and
produces [the impure first seven consciousnesses
only] as a response to [the action of] the false
(ignorance). [Just as] "If the wind stops, the
movement of the ocean water will cease," [likewise]
when ignorance ceases, the [first] seven
consciousnesses will come to an end. [Just as] "the
wet nature of the water will remain undestroyed,"
the essential nature of the true-consciousness is
[likewise] eternal.(89)

Hui-yuan continues to cite the simile as it first
appears in the La^nkaavaataara-suutra, (90) and
concludes with the following remarks:

This [simile] shows that even though the ocean is
driven by wind, its water-nature remains unchanged.
Since its water [-nature] never changes, it is
described as "eternal." [On the other hand,] despite
its eternal nature, it assumes the appearance of
waves when driven by wind. [This simile] illustrates
[the fact] that even though the true-consciousness
[which is the ocean] is disturbed by the wind which
is the false thoughts, its true nature never alters.
[On the other hand,l despite its immutable essence,
the true aspect of the mind generates illusory
phenomena when permeated by false thoughts [created]
from the beginningless past, giving rise to the
[first] seven consciousnesses, in the same way as
ocean gives rise to waves [when driven by wind].(91)

In the simile, the true-mind is likened to ocean
water, and its purity to the ocean water's wet
nature. Ignorance, like wind, blows on the water and
stirs up waves, that is, impure phenomena comprising
the first seven consciousnesses and their objects.
But just as motion is not an essential property of
ocean water, impure phenomena are also not an
essential feature of the true-mind. Moreover, even
when disturbed, the purity of the mind, like the wet
nature of the ocean water, remains undestroyed; and
once the wind of ignorance ceases, the waves of
impure phenomena will also disappear, and the
true-mind will be its own pure self once again.
Thus, by making the action of "ignorance" the
immediate occasion for the arising of impure
phenomena, a way seems to have been found to make
the pure aalaya the ontological ground of the impure
sa.msaaric realm, and yet without compromising in
any way its intrinsic immaculate essence.

The falling back on the concept of "ignorance"
to explain the origin of defilements is quite
natural within the context of Buddhism, for
"ignorance" (avidyaa), as is well known, heads the
list of the twelve links in the chain of dependent
origination, and as such, it has always been
regarded by Buddhists as the main cause of man's
everlasting bondage to the cycles of birth and
death. But what interests us at present is whether
resorting to this concept does help Hui-yuan to
solve the problem he has in hand. An initial
reaction to the above account is: If the original
mind of sentient beings is perfectly pure, why is it

P369

subjected to the defiling influence of "ignorance,"
even if the latter is bent on affecting it? Should
this liability to the disturbances of ignorance not
be considered a defect, so much so that a mind
bearing this defect is no longer entitled to the
epithet of "being perfectly pure"? Conceivably, ways
can be found to bypass this dilemma. For example, it
may be argued that the production of the defiled is
necessary in order that the pure-mind will come to
self-awareness of its nondefiled character. But so
far as the writings of Hui-yuan are concerned, the
possibility of the arising of such or similar doubts
and so the need for explanation are never
entertained, as if merely by introducing the concept
"ignorance" the issue of the origination of the
impure from the pure is accounted for once and
forever.

Another allied question which Hui-yuan has left
completely open is the origin of ignorance. Indeed,
there is so little discussion of the subject in the
extant writings of Hui-yuan that we have to rely
largely on his random remarks and our general
understanding of his metaphysical position to infer
his opinion on the matter. Given the general thesis
of mind-only as outlined in section I, it seems that
the source of ignorance should be traced back to the
pure consciousness, for we have been informed all
along that all forms of existence without exception
owe their being to the original mind. This idea of
the true mind as the ground of ignorance is
suggested by a number of observations in the
Essentials and the Commentary. So, quoting the
Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin lun, Hui-yuan writes in the
Essentials:

As there is at first the tathataa (the pure mind),
there arises subsequently ignorance, the cause of
defilements. As there is ignorance, the cause of
defilements, which permeates the tathataa (the pure
mind), there arises the false mind (the first seven
consciousnesses).(92)

A little later, talking of the permeation of the
tathataa (the true mind), Hui-yuan declares:

Two things result from the permeation of the
tathataa: first, the arising of ignorance, and
second, the arising of the false mind. Since the
tathataa transcends [all] distinctions, it can give
rise to ignorance. Since the tathataa's enlightened
nature is covered by delusions, it produces the
false mind.(93)

However, if this idea of the true mind as the source
of ignorance is adopted as representing the Hui-yuan
position, the problem we have considered in the
preceding paragraph, that is, the problem of the
origination of the impure from the pure, will emerge
once again, and in an even more acute form. For if
we are previously told to believe that a perfectly
pure mind may become the support of impure dharmas
on being affected by an alien factor "ignorance," we
are now further invited to view this alien factor,
which is the immediate occasion of the formation of
all impurities, as among the creations of the
perfectly pure mind itself. Again, we do not dispute
that arguments may actually be produced to make
sense of this apparently improbable situation But
the fact remains that

P370

no such argument appears in any of Hui-yuan's extant
writings, as if there exists no room for misgivings
at all.

Is it possible that despite the scattered
statements quoted above, Hui-yuan in fact means to
locate the origin of ignorance elsewhere? A likely
candidate in this respect is the aadaana, that is,
the seventh consciousness. We have seen in the
discussion of the aadaana in section III that
Hui-yuan is most keen on stressing the
nonenlightened essence of the aadaana-consciousness.
Thus, he gives "ignorance" as one of the four
characteristics of the aadaana,(94) and cites the
term "ignorant consciousness" as one of the
aadaana's synonyms.(95) Furthermore, the aadaana is
several times referred to by Hui-yuan as "the ground
of the original ignorance, "(96) "the source of
falsehoods,"(97) and so forth. In the following
paragraph, the aadaana is pictured as the immediate
factor leading to the arising of the first six
consciousnesses, a role which in the Hui-yuan system
of thought is usually reserved for "ignorance":

Due to the permeation of the root-consciousness (the
aalaya) by the aadaana, the self-grasping mind,
[sentient beings] do not see [the nature of] dharmas
as they really are, and cannot attain nirvaa.na. [As
a consequence, ] there arise the first six
consciousnesses and [their corresponding] six
sense-organs and [six] sense-objects, which
[however] will cease to exist when the aadaana is
abandoned.(98)

But to delegate the role of "ignorance" to the
aadaana-consciousness does not really help Hui-yuan
to solve the problem he is facing, for in Hui-yuan's
mind-only teaching, the seventh consciousness is
included among the creations of the intrinsically
pure aalaya. So the query why a perfectly pure
aalaya would give rise to the origin of impurities
(not being the aadaana) still applies. In addition,
this way of tackling the problem suffers from the
disadvantage of being circular, for is the
aadaana-consciousness not being made out all along
as the outcome of the permeation of the pure mind by
ignorance? How can it also claim to be the cause of
ignorance?

Perhaps, the easiest way out of the already
discussed difficulty is to consider "ignorance" as a
force existing alongside and ontologically
independent of the pure consciousness. Indeed, the
manner in which Hui-yuan presents the interaction of
the pure mind with ignorance often suggests such a
situation:

By the union [of the true and the false, werefer
to] the true-consciousness, which, on being
permeated by bad habits [in existence from] the
beginningless past, gives rise to the ground of
ignorance. The ignorance thus formed does not exist
apart from the pure mind, and together with the pure
mind constitutes the basis of the soul which is
called the root-consciousness, also known as the
aalaya-consciousness.... This aalaya, permeated by
the false belief in existence of permanent selves in
operation from the beginningless past, in turn gives
rise to seeds of self-attachment. Due to the power
of these seeds, there arises the aadaana, the
self-clinging mind.... Again, this aalaya which is
the root-consciousness, permeated by the names of
the six consciousnesses, sense-organs, and
sense-objects in operation from the beginningless
past, gives rise to

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their seeds. Due to the power of these seeds, there
arise the [first] six evolving consciousnesses and
the six sense-organs and sense-objects.(99)

In this account of the evolution of various
phenomenal consciousnesses from the true mind, the
scheme of nine consciousnesses is adopted. The
account starts with two self-sufficient factors: the
"true-consciousness" (the ninth consciousness) and
"bad habits in existence from the beginningless
past." The interaction of these two factors gives
rise to the "root-consciousness," also known as the
aalaya (the eighth consciousness), which has the
true-consciousness as its noumenal aspect and "the
ground of ignorance as the basis of its phenomenal
aspect." The subsequent evolution of the phenomenal
aspect of the root-consciousness leads to the
formation of the aadaana and the first six
consciousnesses with their orresponding sense-organs
and sense-objects.

Now, the preceding picture of dual realities,
that is, the true-consciousness and "bad habits,"
has the virtue of being straightforward. Besides, it
successfully evades the demand for an explanation of
the origin of ignorance, for if we accept the above
conceptual framework, then "bad habits," like the
true-consciousness, has been at work from eternity,
and it owes its existence to nothing other than
itself. Nevertheless, this solution is not without
its concomitant shortcomings:

1. It entails a significant departure from the
concept of mind-only, for it admits the existence
of a metaphysical principle independent of the
pure mind.

2. It lends credence to the popular criticism that
the mind-only teaching of the early Chinese
Yogaacaarins involves differentiations between
the defiled and nondefiled, the phenomenal and
noumenal, and so forth, and so is seriously
compromising the central Buddhist ideal of
"nonduality" (puerh(az) ) or the "round"
(yuan-jing(ba)) as embodied in such celebrated
Mahaayaana sayings as "Sa.msaara is nirvaa.na,"
"Form is emptiness, and emptiness is form," and
so forth.(100) This criticism is especially
pertinent when "ignorance" is considered as
existing apart from the tathaagatagarbha, for if
defiled phenomena arise only when the pure mind
is permeated by an external factor "ignorance,"
they would be accidental to the pure mind, and
can be removed in theory without affecting the
tathaagatagarba's inner identity. The formation
of impure dharmas would only be an essential
feature of the pure mind if "ignorance," the
necessary condition for the arising of
defilements, is intrinsic to the
tathaagatagarbha. But then, ignorance would no
longer be independent of the pure mind, and the
objection how a perfectly pure mind can have
"ignorance" as part of its nature would be
relevant again.

ABBREVIATIONS

Commentary To-ch'eng ch'i-hsin lun i-su(g)
(Commentary on the Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin
lun).

Essentials Ta-ch'eng i'chang(k) (Essentials of
the Mahaayaana).
T Taisho Shinshuu daizokyo(bb). Edited
by Takakusu Junjiro(bc) and Watanabe
Kaikyoku(bd). Tokyo, 1924-1932.

Z ( ) Zoku zokyo(be). Hong Kong, 1967.

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NOTES

1. For more information on these early Chinese
Yogaacaara schools, see D. S. Ruegg, La Theorie du
Tathaagatagarbha et du Gotra (Paris: Ecole Francaise
d' Extreme-Orient, 1969) , pp. 439-442; Alfonso
Verdu, Dialectical Aspects in Buddhist Thought
(Kansas: Centre for East Asian Studies, University
of Kansas, 1974), pp. 29-39; Paul Magnin, La Vie et
l'Oeuvre de Huisi (Paris: Ecole Francaise d'
Extreme-Orient, 1979), n.s., 101 and 102, pp. 96-97;
and Ming-Wood Liu, "The P'an-chiao System of the
Hua-yen School in Chinese Buddhism," T'oung Pao,
n.s., 67, nos. 1-2 (1981): 10-11. Some of the main
theses of these schools will be mentioned as we go
along with our discussion.

2. Posterity usually refers to Hui-yuan as
Ching-ying Hui-yuan in order to avoid confusion with
the famous Hui-yuan (344-416) of Lu-shan(bf)
(Biography of Hui-yuan in Tao-hsuan(bg) , Hsu
kao-sneg-chuan(bh), T, vol. 50, pp. 489c-492b). For
recent studies on the life and writings of Hui-yuan,
refer to Kamata Shigeo(bi) , Chuugoku Bukkyo
shiso-shi kenkyuu(bj) (Tokyo, 1968), pp. 298-308;
Lan Chi-fu(bk), Sui-tai Fo-chiao-shi shu-lun(bl)
(Taipei, 1974) pp. 199-203; and Ocho Enichi(bm),
Chugoku Bukkyo no kenkyuu(bn), vol. 3 (Kyoto, 1979),
pp. 146-150.

3. Hui-yuan was the pupil of Fa-shang(bo)
(495-580), one of the leading Ti-lun masters of that
time. He also came under the influence of the
She-lun school in the later years of his life
through T'an-ch'ien(bp) (542-607) . For more
information, see Katsumata Shunkyo(bq), Bukkyo ni
okeru shinshiki-setsu no kenkyuu(br) (Tokyo, 1961),
pp. 667-668.

4. Of the fifteen works of Hui-yuan whose titles
are known to us, ten still exist today either in
whole or in part. (Refer to the table of Hui-yuan's
writings in Ocho Enichi, Chuugoku Bukkyo (cited in
note 2 preceding), pp. 153-154.) Of these ten, the
most famous, and by far the most important for our
present purpose, is the Essentials, an encyclopedia
of Buddhism compiled from the Mahaayaana standpoint.
Written in the final years of Hui-yuan's life, it
contains the Master's mature opinions on a wide
variety of topics of common concern to all
Buddhists. The work originally comprises five
divisions and 249 items, but only four divisions and
222 items have been passed down to us, including a
long section entitled "Exposition of the Eight
Consciousnesses in Ten Parts" (item 24), which forms
the principal source of reference for our present
study. The rest of Hui-yuan's extant writings are
mostly exegeses of various suutras and `sastras,
such as the Mahaaparinirvaa.na-suutra,
`Sriimaalaa-suutra Da`sabhuumik asuutra-`saastra,
and Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin lun, mostly composed in a
rather pedantic style. Among them, his commentary on
the Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin lun is philosophically the
most interesting, and will be cited time and again
in this study.

5. The classification of Buddhist texts into
different categories, known as p'an-chiao(bs), is a
distinctive feature of Chinese Buddhism. It came
into vogue in the country in the fifth and sixth
centuries. See Leon Hurvitz, Chih-i (Bruxelles:
L'Institut Belge des Hautes Etudes Chinoises, 1962),
pp. 214-217, and Ming-Wood Liu, "The Pan-chiao
System" (cited in note 1 preceding), pp. 13-14.

6. Essentials, T, vol. 44, p. 505c, 11.12-14.

7. Ibid., p. 532c, 11.4-7.

8. Ibid., p. 529c, 11.24-25.

9. Shih-ti ching-lun i-chi(bt), Z, vol. 71, p.
188b, 1.3.

10. Commentary, T, vol. 44, p. 191c, 1.16.

11. Essentials, T, vol. 44, p. 529b, 11.27-28.

12. The seventh consciousness is considered by
Hui-yuan as an important source of defilements. See
secs. III and V in this article.

13. T, vol. 44, p. 187a, 11.25-28. This passage
is Hui-yuan's exegesis of the clause "Since all
dharmas are developed from the mind and are produced
by false thoughts," in the Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin lun
(T, vol. 32, p. 577b, 1.18). Elsewhere in the
Commentary, Hui-yuan also remarks, "The immediate
ground [of the realm of sa.msaara] is the false
consciousness. As for the remote cause, there is
also the true-consciousness" (T, vol. 44, p. 108b,
1.21).

14. The three realms are the realm of desire,
the realm of form, and the formless realm, which
together constitute the totality of sa.msaaric
existence.

15. T, vol. 44, p. 183c, 11.23-29.

16. Essentials, T, vol. 44, p. 523b, 11.3-5.

17. Ibid., p. 486b, 11.19-20.

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18. For details on the various systems of
consciousnesses taught by the early Chinese
Yogaacaarins, see Katsumata Shunkyo, Bukkyo (cited
in note 3 preceding), pp. 678-681. Ti-lun masters in
general favor the system of eight consciousnesses.

19. See Essentials, T, vol. 44, pp. 525a-531b.

20. Ibid., p. 524b, 1.26-c, 1.2.

21. Ibid., p. 524c, 11.2-5.

22. In Buddhism, a distinction is drawn between
the "mind" and the "mind sense-organ."

23. For information on the traditional Indian
Yogaacaara understanding of the aalaya, see A.K.
Chatterjee, The Yogaacaara Idealism (Varanasi:
Banaras Hindu University, 1962), pp. 115-120.

24. According to the Fa-hua hsuan-i(bu) of
Chih-i(bv) (538-597), the Ti-lun School (Southern
Branch) maintains that the aalaya is eternal and
pure, while the She-lun School considers it as
defiled and postulates the existence of a ninth
consciousness or amala-consciousness which is
perfectly immaculate and immutable (T, vol. 33, p.
744b).

25. T, vol. 44, p. 524c, 11.1 8-19. A similar
definition of the aalaya is found in the Commentary,
T, vol. 44, p. 182c, 11.7-9.

26. In orthodox Yogaacaara teaching, the aalaya
is called "tsang" because it is the "tsang"
(receptum) of karmic effects, not because it is the
"tsang" (garbha, embryo) of the tathaagata. Since in
Chinese translations the same character "tsang" is
used to render "receptum" and embryo," Hui-yuan is
here playing on the ambiguity of the term to prove
his point that the aalaya is equivalent to the
tathaagatagarbha and is a perfectly pure
consciousness.

27. T, vol. 44, p. 524c, 1.19-p. 525a, 1.1.

28. Hui-yuan derives most of these synonyms of
the "aalaya" from the La^nkaavataara-suutra, the
`Sriimaalaa-suutra, and the Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin lun.
For a detailed list of the original sources of these
terms, refer to Sakamoto Yukio(bw), Kegon kyogaku no
kenkyuu(bx) (Kyoto, 1956), pp. 395-396.

29. T, vol. 44, p. 194a, 11.13-15.

30. See T, vol. 32, p. 575c, 11.25-28.

31. Shih-ti ching-lun i-chi, Z, vol. 71, p.
154c, 11.1-10. A Similar passage can be found in the
Essentials, T, vol. 44, p. 652a, 11. 1-10. Also see
ibid., p. 530a, 1.18-b,1.6.

32. How this happens will be discussed in sec. V
of this article.

33. See Commentary, T, vol. 44, p. 198a-c, and
Essentials, T, vol. 44, p. 539c-p.540b.

34. Ibid., p. 539c, 11.25-26.

35. Ibid., p. 539c, 11.28-29. Refer to Ta-ch'eng
ch'i-hsin lun, T, vol. 32, p. 580a, 11.17-26.

36. Essentials, T, vol. 44, p. 540a, 11.2-9.
Refer to Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin lun, T, vol. 32, p.
580a, 11.13-17. The fact that all excellences exist
in the tathaagatagarbha as one interconnected
reality is much emphasized by Hui-yuan, who takes it
as one of the two meanings of "emptiness" in
connection with the tathaagatagarbha. See
Essentials, T, vol. 44, p. 511b, 1.25-c, 1.4, p.
546c, 11.24--27, and p. 815a, 11.1-13; and
Commentary, T, vol. 44, p.181b-p.182b.

37. Essentials, T, vol. 44, p. 540a, 11.12-16.
Refer to Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin lun, T, vol. 32, p.
580a, 1.26-b,1.4.

38. See T, vol. 31, p. 75b-c.

39. Essentials, T, vol. 44, p. 540a, 11.16-27.

40. Commentary, T, vol. 44, p. 194b, 11. 14-17.
See also Essentials, T, vol. 44, p. 816b, 11.16-22.

41. Ibid., p. 652b, 11.15-16.

42. T, vol. 32, p. 578a, 1.7.

43. T, vol. 44, p. 191c, 11.26-29.

44. Essentials, T, vol. 44, p. 524c, 11.7-8.

45. The Sa.mdhinirmocana-suutra writes,

This consciousness (aalaya) is also known as the
aadaana-consciousness. Why? Because this
consciousness seizes on and maintains the [material]
body [which is transitory]. (T, vol. 16, p. 692b,
11.15-16. Etienne Lamotte, trans. (Louvain:
Universite de Louvain, 1935 p. 184)

Very similar are the definitions of the term
"aadaana" in the Mahaayaanasa.mgraha-`saastra and
the Ch'eng wei-shih lun:

Why is this [aalaya] consciousness also known as the
aadaana-consciousness? Because it seizes on and
maintains all material sense-organs and is the
support of all [forms of] living begins. (T. vol.
31,

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p. 114a, 11.13-14. Etiene Lamottee, trans., La Somme
du Grand Vehicule d'Asa^nga (Louvain-La-Neuve:
Institut Orientaliste de l'Universite Catholique de
Louvain, 1973),p. 14) [The eighth consciousness] is
also called the aadaana, for it seizes on and
maintains the seeds (i.e., karmic effects) and
various material sense-organs, and prevents them
from perishing. (T, vol. 31, p. 139, 11.9-10. Wei
Tat, trans. (Hong Kong, 1973), p. 185)

46. See note 45 preceding.

47. For information on the influence of the
She-lun School on Hui-yuan's concept of the seventh
consciousness or the aadaana, see Katsumata Shunkyo,
Bukkyo, pp. 669-670.

48. The idea of the seventh consciousness as the
"ground of original ignorance" will be discussed in
detail in sec. V of this article.

49. Essentials, T., vol. 44, p. 524c, 11.8-18.
Names 2-5 are adopted from the Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin
lun, where they are used as the alternative names of
the manas (T, vol. 32, p. 577b, 11.6-15). For more
comments by Hui-yuan on the first six of these eight
synonyms of the aadaana, read Essentials, T, vol.
44, p. 530c, 1.26-p. 531b, 1.3, and Ta-pan nieh-p'an
ching i-chi(by), T, vol. 37, p. 864b, 1.28-c,

50. In later parts of the Essentials, the
retaining of karmic effects is given as the function
of the root-consciousness, which is the eighth in
the scheme of nine consciousnesses and represents
the phenomenal aspect of the pure mind. See T, vol.
44, p. 535a, 11.15-17 and p. 536a, 11.16-20. The
ideas of nine consciousnesses and the two aspects of
the pure mind will be discussed in sec. V of this
article.

51. Essentials, T, vol. 44, p. 526c, 11.8-10.

52. Ibid., p. 526c, 11.10-14.

53. Ibid., p. 526c, 11.14-15.

54. Ibid., p. 526c, 11.15-18.

55. Ibid., p. 527a, 11.24-25. See note 65
following.

56. Ibid., p. 532a, 11.7-8. Also refer to the
second and fifth false views regarding the aadaana
outlined in what follows. Further explanation of the
relation between the aalaya and the aadaana will be
given in sec. V.

57. See Commentary, T, vol. 44, pp. 198c-199c
and Essentials, T, vol. 44, pp. 538c-539c.

58. The mind sense-organ, as we have several
times mentioned, is one of the six sense-organs.

59. See the explanation of why the aadaana and
the first six consciousnesses are likewise described
as "false" on pp. 19-20.

60. Essentials, T, vol. 44, p. 539b, 11.9-10.

61. Ibid., p. 539c, 11.1-2.

62. Ibid., p. 524c, 11.5-7.

63. Ibid., p. 526b, 11.1-9.

64. The text reads "When the true permeates the
false," which does not make sense.

65. T, vol. 44, p. 527a, 11.24-28.

66. The "homogeneous cause," "associated cause,"
and "simultaneous cause" are three of the "six
causes." which, together with the "four conditions"
just mentioned, represent the most commonly accepted
analysis of the causal relation among Buddhists. For
more information on the six causes and four
conditions, see Edward Conze, Buddhist Thought in
India (Ann Arbor, Michigan: The University of
Michigan Press, 1962), pp. 153-156, and David J.
Kalupahana, Causality: The Central Philosophy of
Buddhism (Honolulu, Hawaii: The University Press of
Hawaii, 1975), pp. 164-167.

67. T, vol. 44, p. 525a, 11.12-21.

68. Ibid., p. 525b, 11.26-28.

69. This is the first of the six mental taints.
Refer to T, vol. 33, p. 5779, 11.7-8.

70. The ten fundamental defilements include
"desire," "hatred," "stupidity," "pride," "doubt,"
and the five false views, namely, belief in the
existence of a permanent self, in the efficacy of
rigorous ascetic practices, and so forth.

71. T, vol. 44, p. 531b, 11. 10-15.

72. Ibid., p. 538a-c.

73. Hui-yuan is confusing his readers by
bringing in the idea of transmigration to explain
that the first six consciousnesses are neither
definitely permanent nor impermanent. As we have
seen in

P375

the preceding section, in Hui-yuan's picture of
reality, it is the seventh consciousness which
undertakes the role of the subject of rebirth.
Indeed, this argument as it stands applies more to
the seventh consciousness than to the first six
consciousnesses.

74. T, vol. 32, p. 577a, 1.2.

75. T, vol. 44, p. 185c, 11.20-22.

76. Ibid., p. 1979, 11.25-27.

77. Essentials, T, vol. 44, p. 482a, 11.22-23.

78. Ibid., p. 547a, 11.11-12. Also see Ibid., p.
829a, 11. 10-11.

79. Commentary, T, vol. 44, p. 180b, 11.8-12.

80. Essentials, T, vol. 44, p. 525c, 11.3-8.

81. Note that these terms are given as the
synonyms of the aalaya in note 27 preceding.

82. Essentials, T, vol. 44, p. 530b, 11.7-11.

83. Ibid., p. 530c, 11.10-13.

84. See note 18 preceding.

85. We know that Hui-yuan was influenced by the
teaching of the She-lun School in the final years of
his life. See note 3 preceding.

86. T, vol. 44, p. 5349, 11.14-16.

87. For example, see T, vol. 44, p. 176a,
11.9-11, p. 179a, 11.20-24, and p. 179c, 11.14-16.

88. T, vol. 32, p. 5769, 11. 11-13.

89. T, vol. 44, p. 185a, 11.7-11. Hui-yuan
follows closely the interpretation of the simile of
the Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin lun. After giving us the
simile as cited in quotation 113, the author of the
Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin lun goes on to explain its
purport:

Likewise, the intrisically pure mind of sentient
beings is disturbed by the wind of ignorance. Even
though the mind and ignorance, both having no
specific form, are inseparable, the mind is not by
nature turbulent. If ignorance is annihilated, the
continuous [activities] of the mind will stop, and
yet its nature of wisdom will remain intact. (T,
vol. 32, p. 576c, 11.13-16)

90. Refer to T, vol. 16, p. 484b, 11.9-12.

91. T, vol. 44, p. 1852, 11.20-24. Also see
Essentials, T, vol. 44, pp. 532c-533a.

92. T, vol. 44, p. 533c, 11.10-11. Refer to
Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin lun, T, vol. 32, p. 578a,
11.22-23.

93. Essentials, T, vol. 44, p. 5339, 11.26-28.

94. See note 53 preceding.

95. See note 49 preceding.

96. For example, see ibid.

97. For example, see Essentials, T, vol. 44,p,
533a, 1.22.

98. Ibid., p. 533b, 11. 15-17.

99. Ibid., p. 529c, 11.12-21.

100. For discussion on these ideals, see
Ming-Wood Liu, "The Pan-chiao System," pp. 40-44.
This criticism is most clearly expressed in the
writings of the T'ien-t'ai masters. Consult Ando
Toshio(bz) , Tendai shogu shiso ron(ca) (Kyoto,
1973), pp. 93-104, 136-145, and 215-248.