The religious import of Confucian philosophy

·期刊原文
The religious import of Confucian philosophy:
It's traditional outlook and contemporary significance

Liu, Sbu-bsien

Philosophy East and West
No. 21(1971)
pp. 167-176

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There is no adequate definition of religion that can apply to all the great world religions. A Westerner may be satisfied with defining religion as man's belief in a higher spiritual power or powers. When this definition is applied to Oriental religions without qualification, paradoxes inevitably ensue. Thus Buddhism would be characterized as an "atheistic religion," which in English would almost amount to a contradiction in terms. The situation with regard to Confucianism is even worse. Confucianism has usually been regarded as a secular moral philosophy with no religious import at all. In China, however, Confucianism has for centuries been mentioned along with Buddhism and Taoism as one of the three religions (the so-called san-chiao [a] ). From a Western perspective, then, a revision and broadening of the traditional concept of religion would seem to be needed to permit discussion of the religious import of Confucianism. In this connection, Paul Tillich's doctrine of religious faith as ultimate concern perhaps points toward a new and promising direction.[1] The Confucian tradition certainly has its unique way of expressing its ultimate and therefore religious concern. The present essay is an attempt to uncover the religious import in Confucian philosophy and to ascertain its meaning in contemporary discussions of theology and philosophy of religion.[2]

First, I shall trace the development of the Confucian religious attitude and point out its general characteristics; second, I shall compare this attitude with the Christian attitude; third, I shall discuss its contemporary significance with reference to the current development of theology and religious philosophy in the West; finally, I shall make some general remarks upon the relevance of religious teaching to today's situation.

I.

It seems that in ancient times Chinese civilization went through the stage of polytheistic belief. During the Shang dynasty (1751?-1112 B.C.) t’i [b] (over-lord), a supreme personal god, was the primary object of worship.[3] Ti, however, gradually gave way to T'ien[c] (Heaven), also a supreme personal god,in the early Chou period.[4] Monotheistic thought has not developed in China. Since Confucius' religious attitude has largely determined the general directio

Shu-hsien Liu si Associate Professor of Philosophy at Southern Illinois University(Carbondale).
[1]See Paul Tillich, Dynamics of Faith(New York: Harper & Bros,1957),pp.1-4
[2] In China the religious faith of the intellectuals should be distinguished from popular religious faith. The latter will not be treated in this study. On that aspect of the problem readers may consult Ch’ing –k’un Yang, Religion in Chinese Society(Berkeley University of California Press, 1961).
[3] D. Howard Smith, Chinese Religions(New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1968),pp. 5-6.
[4] Ibid., pp. 13-27

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of the subsequent development of Chinese religious thought:, a careful exam-Inaction of Confucius' religious thought is in order.

It has always been a controversal issue whether Confucius was a conservative or a revolutionary thinker; the adoption of different positions on this issue results in dissimilar interpretations of Confucius' religious attitude. I tend to think that. he was a great reformist thinker who instilled a new spirit into traditional forms. At times it' seems that he was still using traditional terminologies. On further examination, however, it will be discovered that the seemingly traditional terms he used had already been given entirely new meanings. I contend that Confucius' use of the term t'ien illustrates exactly such a case. There are passages in the Analects in which Confucius is reported to have exclaimed that "Heaven produced the virtue that is in me; v/hat can Huan T'ui do to me?"[5] and "Alas, Heaven is destroying- me! Heaven is destroying me!"[6] The natural reaction is to interpret the Confucian notion of Heaven as a supreme personal god with a will of his own. Such an interpretation would, make Confucius' view thoroughly coherent with the traditional view of Heaven. On further study, however, this interpretation is found to be unable to stand critical examination. There is strong evidence that Confucius adopted a different view of Heaven. The following anecdote is recorded in the Analects:

Confucius said, "I do not wish to say anything." Tzu-kung said, "If you do not say anything, what can we little disciples ever learn to pass on to others ?"Confucius said, "Does Heaven (T'ien, Nature) say anything? The four seasons run their course and all things are produced. Does Heaven, say anything ?"[7]

Since Heaven does not speak to man in a literal sense, all we know about Heaven is that there is an objective order which is the manifestation of the work of Heaven; perhaps it would be more correct to conceive of Heaven in impersonal rather than personal terms. Further evidence shows that Confucius rejected the use of prayer, as he said, "He who commits a sin against Heaven has no god to pray to." [8] Heaven, for Confucius, symbolizes the origin of a definite natural as well as moral order. Its mandate is understood not through revelation, but through man's commitment to wisdom and humanity, that is, the principle of knowledge and the principle of realization respectively. Therefore, whether or not Heaven has a. personal character is not even a relevant question for Confucius. Although in times of great emotional strain he might still use traditional expressions to give vent to his feelings, such expressions should not be taken, at their face value.

[5] Analects 7:22, as given in Wing-tsit Chan, A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963),p.32 All Source Book.
[6] Analects 11:8
[7] Analects 17:19
[8] Analects 3:13

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In fact, Confucius in his unobtrusive way made a decisive turn from an emphasis on spiritual powers to an emphasis on man.[9] It was he who declared that "It is man that can make the Way great, and not the Way that can make man great." [10] He was concerned about this world. "Chi-lu (Tzu-lu) asked about serving the spiritual beings. Confucius said, 'If we are not yet able to serve man, how can we serve spiritual being's?' 'I venture to ask about death.' Confucius said, 'If we do not yet know about life, how can we know about death ?' " [11] Instances like this may give one the impression that Confucius was a thoroughly irreligious man. Yet, on the other hand, Confucius is also portrayed as a man who guarded jealously the performance of traditional sacrificial rites in a meticulous fashion. [12] Was he inconsistent with himself? A most puzzling statement upon the subject can be found in the Analects: "When Confucius offered sacrifice to his ancestors, he felt as if ancestral spirits were actually present. When he offered sacrifice to other spiritual beings, he felt as if they were actually present. He said, If I do not participate in the sacrifice, it is as if I did not sacrifice at all.' " [13] A proper understanding of the implication of the statement is indeed the key to Confucius' religious thinking. When Confucius made sacrifices to spiritual beings, apparently he did not concern himself with the existence of spiritual beings. Even if they exist, that fact itself would be irrelevant. Since man is to practice moral autonomy, it is against moral principles for him to make any bargain with spiritual beings, however powerful they may be. But a deep sense of piety is invariably aroused by participating in sacrificial ceremonies. Confucius seemed to have been convinced that there is a natural foundation for the practice of such ceremonies. The crux of the problem lies in identifying this foundation within Confucius' thought.

As is well known, rites and music were the two important means Confucius relied upon to educate people; yet he said, "If a man is not jend, what has he to do with ceremonies? If he is not jên [d], what has he to do with music?" [14] From the context it is not difficult to infer that jen must be the spirit underlying the practice of any rules of propriety. [15] But it is not easy to pin down the

[9] See Analects 7:20. It was reported that Confucius never discussed strange phenomena, physical exploits, disorder, or spiritual beings.1
[10] Analects 15:28.
[11] Analects 11:11.
[12] See Analects 3-17. "Tzu-kung- wanted to do away with the sacrificing of a lamb at the ceremony in which the beginning of each month is reported to ancestors. Confucius said, 'Tz'u! You love the lamb but I love the ceremony.'" It is such stories that make Confucius appear to be a conservative.
[13]Analects 3:12.
[14] Analects 3:3.
[15]See Analects 4:5. In another place Confucius said, "A superior man never abandons humanity even for the lapse of a single meal. In moments of haste, he acts according to it. In times of difficulty or confusion, he acts according to it." There is left little doubt that jen. (humanity) was Confucius' ultimate concern.

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exact meaning of jên, as Confucius himself never tried to give a formal definition of jên. jên has been variously translated as "love," "benevolence," "man-to-manness," "human-heart edness," and "humanity/' but none of the terms can convey what Confucius originally intended to say. In short, jên may be regarded as either one particular virtue among others or the virtue that makes all virtues virtues. On one level the commitment to jên dictates that one should hold a loving altitude toward fellow human beings and even toward natural things in the world. A more profound understanding of the virtue has been supplied in the Confucian statement; "To master oneself and return to propriety is humanity." [16] Confucius seemed to imply that there is a. "depth dimension" in man. It is the realization of this dimension within himself that makes him a full man. An enlightened man follows the rules of propriety because of his own intrinsic demands, not because of a desire to copy the behavioral patterns sanctioned by social conventions. Once the intrinsic value of life is realized, one would naturally feel a deep sense of piety toward the sources of life, that is, ancestors, the givers of the life of the family and the self, and Heaven, the ultimate metaphysical principle that gives rise to all things in the universe. [17] Sacrificial rites provide an occasion for man to express this deep-seated feeling within himself as well as an occasion to educate the masses. It was in this way that Confucius instilled new life into the practice of traditional ritual ceremonies.

If the above analysis is sound, then Confucius must be said to have been a radical humanist and a deeply religious person. He was a radical humanist in the sense that he refused to have anything to do with spiritual beings, and a deeply religious man in the sense that he fully realized that there is a "depth dimension" in man. The realization of this dimension in man would naturally drive him to care for life of his own kind, and to feel a deep sense of piety toward Heaven, the ultimate source of all life and all things in the world.

Confucius undoubtedly established the basic pattern for Confucian religious thought, but he also left many important issues unsettled. It was in the hands of Mencius that this line of thought received its definite form, Mencius observed that there is very little difference between man and other animals. If man does not guard carefully this little difference within himself, it would be easy for

[16] Analects 12:1.
[17] See Analects 9:16. The function of Heaven is to create. Confucius always showed admiration for the unceasing work of nature. At one time he stood by a stream and burst into praise. "It passes on like this, never ceasing day or night." He always urged people to follow the example of Heaven, even though Heaven never speaks anything to us in a literal sense. Since the will of Heaven can be known through its manifestations, Confucius cannot be said to be a radical agnostic thinker, a characterization that many scholars have made.

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him to lapse into living the life of a beast. He also observed that there is a clear distinction between a great man and a small man. But the difference between the two is a functional one, rather than a substantial one. According' to him, "Those who follow the greater qualities in their nature become great men and those who follow the small qualities in their nature become small men." [18] Further elaborating this point, Mencius said that

When our senses of sight and hearing are used without thought and are thereby obscured by material things, the material things act on the material senses and lead them astray. That is all. The function of the mind is to think. If we think, we will get them.... If we do not think, we will not get them. This is what Heaven has given to us. If we first build up the nobler part of our nature, then the inferior part cannot overcome it. It is simply this that makes a man great. [19]

In other words, the good endowment is in everybody; the crucial question lies in whether one can cultivate and develop this endowment to its fullest extent.

If you let people follow their feelings (original nature), they will be able to do good. This is what is meant by saying that human nature is good. If man does evil, it is not the fault of his natural endowment. The feeling' of commiseration is found in all men; the feeling of shame and dislike is found in all men ; the feeling of respect and reverence is found in all men ; and the feeling of right and wrong is found in all men. The feeling of commiseration is what we call humanity: the feeling of shame and dislike is what we call righteousness ; the feeling of respect and reverence is what we call propriety ( li ) [e] ; and the feeling of right and wrong is what we call wisdom. Humanity, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom are not drilled into us from outside. We originally have them with us. Only we do not think [to find them]. Therefore it is said, "Seek and you will find it, neglect and you will lose it." [20]

This is Mencius' famous doctrine of the Four Beginnings in man. Even though he asserted that human nature is good, Mencius never denied the possibility or actuality of evils committed by men. All he said was that man should discipline and develop the good endowment within himself and overcome his idiosyncrasy to do evil. Thus he pronounced the judgment that
Men have these Four Beginnings just as they have their four limbs. Having these Four Beginnings, but saying that they cannot develop them is to destroy themselves. When they say that their ruler cannot develop them, they are destroying their ruler. If anyone with these Four Beginning's knows how to give them the fullest extension and development, the result will be like fire beginning to burn or a spring beginning to shoot forth. When they are fully developed, they will be sufficient to protect all people within the four seas (the world). If they are not developed, they will not be sufficient even to serve one's parents. [21]

[18] The Mencius 6A:l5.
[19] Ibid.
[20] The Mencius 6A:6
[21] The Mencius 2A:6.

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Mencius firmly believed that, when one's good endowment is -fully developed, he cannot fail to realize the meaning of the transcendent.

He who exerts his mind to the utmost knows his nature. He who knows his nature knows Heaven. To preserve one's mind and to nourish one's nature is the way to serve Heaven. Not to allow any double-mindedness regardless of longevity or brevity of life, but to cultivate one's person and wait for [destiny (ming [f], fate, Heaven's decree or mandate) to take its own course] is the way to fulfill one's destiny. [22]

The meaning implied in the passage above is extremely rich. For Mencius the best way for man to serve Heaven is not to depart from the human way but to fulfill his human destiny. If one were able to exert and preserve his own mind, then he would be able to realize his true nature. If the depth dimension in him were fully realized, he would find himself in perfect union with Heaven, the symbol of the supreme creative power in the universe. This does not mean that Heaven would grant him any special favor. A man's actual destiny in life is not always controllable. He can only work according to the Way and wait for his moment. The moment may never come. But he would have no grudge in his heart, because he always would have been able to work along with the creative power in the universe, seeking fulfillment of his own life and spreading beneficial influence in the world. "Whenever the superior man passes through, transforming influence follows. Wherever he abides, spiritual influence remains. This forms the same current above and below with that of Heaven and Earth.” [23] Hence there is a double meaning for the term "destiny." On the one hand, a superior man has to accept his actual destiny however bad it is, and to wait for his call, which throughout his life may never come to him; in this sense he can never be the master of his destiny. On the other hand, only a superior man can always live according to the Way regardless of adverse environment; in this sense only a superior man can always fulfill his destiny. Such a man does not lack anything. Therefore Mencius said, "All things are already complete in oneself. There is no greater joy than to examine oneself and be sincere." [24] The thought contained in this statement has been interpreted by scholars as Mencius' "mysticism." [25] But if there is indeed a mystery, this profound mystery lies deep in every human heart. It is in fact a mystery open to everybody and ought to be realized by everybody. Mencius said, "Form and color (our body) are nature endowed by Heaven. It is only the sage who can

[22] The Mencius 7A:1.
[23] The Mencius 7A:13.
[24] The Mencius 7A :4.
[25] Fung Yu-lan, for one, has held such an opinion. He thinks the meaning of the statement is too vague for us to give any definite interpretation. But our interpretation shows that the meaning of the statement is clear and the thought expressed by the statement is thoroughly consistent, with Mencius' thought. Cf. Fung, A History of Chinese Philosophy, trans.Derk Bodde, 2 vols. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1952-53), I, 129-131.

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put his physical form into full use." [26] A sage has no other secret than realizing to the full what everybody has in himself. He does not need to renounce the world in order to find the message of the other world.

In many respects the thought of Mencius went beyond that of Confucius. Mencius explicitly stated that human nature is good. He prescribed definite ways of cultivating the mind. The meaning of Heaven in his philosophy lost its personal character. Moreover, his philosophy has been accepted by later generations to represent the orthodox line of Confucian thought. [27]

After Mencius the metaphysical aspect of Confucian philosophy was further developed in The Doctrine of the Mean and The Commentaries of the Book of Changes [28] The opening statement of The Doctrine of the Mean is:

What Heaven (T'ien, Nature) imparts to man is called human nature. To follow our nature is called the Way (Tao). Cultivating the Way is called education. The Way cannot be separated from us for a moment. What can be separated from us is not the Way- Therefore the superior man is cautious over what he does not see and apprehensive over what he does not hear. There is nothing- more visible than what is hidden and nothing more manifest than what is subtle. Therefore the superior man is watchful over himself when he is alone. [29]

That human nature is good is inherent in its teaching, and the stress on education and discipline is continued. But what is conspicuous here is the emphasis on the Way. The way of man and the Way of Heaven are correlated with each other. The Doctrine of the Mean teaches that "equilibrium is the

[26] The Mencius 7A :38.
[27] Hsun Tzu, another great Confucian philosopher, flourished in the late Chou period. He repudiated Mencius' view of human nature and taught that human nature is evil. He adopted a naturalistic interpretation of Heaven. He said, "Instead of regarding Heaven as great and admiring it, why not foster it as a thing and regulate it? Instead of obeying Heaven and singing praise to it, why not control the Mandate of Heaven and use it?" (The Hsun Tzu, chap. 17, in Chan, Source Book, p. 122.) Heaven, for Hsun Tzu, was the symbol o￡ a purely natural order which had completely lost its sense of transcendence. Hsun Tzu's thought may be close to the modern scientific view. But his thought was condemned as unorthodox, and hence exerted only very little influence upon the main current of Confucian philosophy.
[28] The Doctrine of the Mean is a chapter in The Boots of Rites. According to the traditional account, it was written by Confucius' grandson Tzu-ssu, who had taught Mencius' teacher. When one compares its content with Mencius, however, one may see that it was a further development of Mencius' thought. The concept of sincerity, which had been developed into a metaphysical principle in The Doctrine of the Mean, was barely touched upon in Mencius. Therefore, I would like to place the work in its completed form later than Mencius. The Book of Changes, one of the Confucian Five Classics, was originally only a hook of divination. But in the commentaries on the book, which were probably written by Confucius' followers, highly advanced cosmological and ethical insights were developed. They constitute a rich source for a study of the Confucian metaphysical theory. The Great Learning, another important chapter in The Book of Rites, was not used in this article, because it does not have particular significance in a. discussion of Coalads.a religious philosophy and metaphysics .
[29] The Doctrine of the Mean, in Chan, Source Book, p. 98.

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great foundation of the world, and harmony its universal path. When equilibrium and harmony are realized to the highest degree, heaven and earth will attain their proper order and all things will flourish." [30] Man is the only living being in the world who can consciously commit himself to participating in the creative process of the universe. "Sincerity is the Way of Heaven. To think how to be sincere is the way of man." [31] The concept of sincerity (ch'eng) [g], which Mencius barely touched upon, had been developed into a metaphysical principle.

Therefore absolute sincerity is ceaseless. Being ceaseless, it is lasting. Being lasting, it is evident. Being evident, it is infinite. Being infinite, it is extensive and deep. Being extensive and deep, it is high and brilliant. It is because it is extensive and deep that it contains all things. It is because it is high and brilliant that it overshadows all things. It is because it is infinite and lasting that it can complete all things. In being extensive and deep, it is a counterpart of Earth. In being high and brilliant, it is a counterpart of Heaven. In being infinite and lasting, it is unlimited. Such being its nature, it becomes prominent without any display, produces changes without motion, and accomplishes its ends without action. [32]

This passage may serve as a description of the ultimate metaphysical principle from a Confucian point of view. As for man, he must seek to develop the absolute sincerity in his nature.

Only those who are absolutely sincere can fully develop their nature. If they can fully develop their nature, they can then fully develop the nature of others. If they can fully develop the nature of others, they can then fully develop the nature of things. If they can fully develop the nature of things, they can then assist in the transforming and nourishing process of Heaven and Earth. If they can assist in the transforming and nourishing process of Heaven and Earth, they can thus form a trinity with Heaven and Earth. [33]

The world from a Confucian point of view is an ever-creative process, and man has the potentiality and ability to participate actively in this creative process. The Confucian metaphysics was developed to a new height in The Commentaries of the Book of Changes. A complicated system of cosmological symbolism was formulated, and the philosophical concepts of t'ai-chi [h] (the Great Ultimate) and yin-yang [i] (the negative and positive forces operating in the universe) were developed. No detailed analysis will be given here. It suffices for our purpose to look at a few key statements from the Commentaries.

The successive movement of yin and yang constitutes the Way (Tao), What issues from the Way is good, and that which realizes it is the individual nature. The man of humanity (Jên) sees it and calls Jt humanity. The man of wisdom sees it and calls it wisdom. And the common people act according to it daily

[30] Ibid.
[31] Ibid, p107
[32] Ibid, p109
[33] Ibid, pp. 107-108

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without knowing it. In this way the Way of the superior man is fully realized. It [spirit] is manifested in humanity but is concealed in its functioning. It promotes all thing's without sharing the anxiety of the sage- How perfect is its eminent virtue and great achievement! Its achievement is great because it possesses everything, and its virtue is abundant because it renovates things every day. [34]

Several notable features of the Confucian metaphysical point of view are revealed in this passage. (1) The Confucian philosophers believe that the world is constituted of a. dynamic creative process moving toward the completion of ever increasing values. And there is an ontological ground in man for him to realize the message of creativity in the universe. (2) From an epistemological view, however, not every man can realize the profound message, despite the fact that the. power of creativity works incessantly in every detail of his daily life. A man's world is correlated with his understanding of the world. Here is found the deepest root of the anxiety of the sage, who takes it as his mission to enlighten people and to urge them to be in harmony with the most profound dimension of reality. (3) The contrast between the way of the transcendent and the way of the sage is the contrast between one without effort and without limitation and one with utmost effort and with intrinsic human limitations. Man can imitate the Way of Heaven and actively participate in the creative process of the universe without being able to be exactly identical with the transcendent. Objectively, the human world is one that can never reach absolute perfection. Experientially, however, the sage, with all his anxiety, has no regret in his heart, because he has always worked along with the creative power in the universe and has fulfilled his specific human destiny. It is here that we can see clearly the convergence of, as well as the divergence between, the Way of Heaven and the way of man.

It is of interest to note that there is no equivalent for the English term "God" in the Chinese language [35] Shen [ j ], the term modern Chinese used to stand for "God," appears in The Commentaries of the Book of Changes in the following context: "Changes mean production and reproduction. Ch'len means the completion of forms, and k'un means to model after them. Divination means to go to the utmost of the natural course of events in order to know the future. Affairs mean to adapt and accommodate accordingly. And that which is unfathomable in the operation of yin and yang is called spirit." [36] The translator chooses to render Shen into English as "spirit." Nothing more than the feeling

[34] The Book of Changes, The Appended Remarks, in Chan, Source Book, p. 266
[35] The Chinese finally agreed to use the term Shang-ti (Overlord) to translate" the Christian God.
[36] The Book of Changes, The Appended Remarks (Chan, Source Book, p. 266). I would like to rcrender the first sentence as "Changes mean creation and unceasing creation." Ch'ien and k'un are the names of two most important hexagrams. Ch'ien is the symbol for Heaven, creativity, and k’un is the symbol for Earth, sustenance.

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of awe toward the unfathomable and therefore spiritual function of creativity is needed for the Confudan philosophers. The Chinese stress on function is in sharp contrast to the Western emphasis on substance. The Chinese seem to have successfully resisted the tendency to hypostatize the transcendent, metaphysical principle of creativity into the form of a supreme personal God. This is why monotheism did not grow in the Chinese soil. In its place the Chinese would rather subject their faith to a functional monism.

I have attempted to give a brief summary of Confucian religious philosophy as developed in the ancient period. The philosophy was revived by the Neo-Confucian schools during the Sung and the Ming dynasties. [37] The essential teachings of Confucianism were kept intact, only the formulation of thought became much more sophisticated owing to stimuli received-from the challenges of Buddhism and Taoism. Some new developments in Neo-Confucian philosophy that are relevant to our discussion may be summarized as follows:

(1) On the metaphysical level, the new concepts of li [k] (principle) and chi [ l ] (material force) were developed, the principle of t'ai-chi (the Great Ultimate) was reconstructed, [38] and comprehensive cosmological theories were attempted in which even the existence of ghosts and spirits received a naturalistic explanation in terms of the interplay of principle and material force.
(2) On the human level, a much more sophisticated theory of human nature was formulated in which the distinction between man's material nature and moral nature was made. [39]" Systematic ways of discipline of the self were developed, and more penetrating understandings of how to develop one's original mind, to realize one's original nature, and to form a perfect union with the Way were being seriously pursued.

Certain common religious sentiments of the Neo-Confucian philosophers

[37] In the late Chou period, Chinese philosophy enjoyed its golden age. In the Han dynasty, Confucianism was established as the orthodox philosophy of the dynasty. But Confucian philosophy deteriorated into either pedantic classic studies or an eclectic philosophy which adopted a literal interpretation of the union between Heaven and man and tended to generate and foster superstitious beliefs. In the following ages, Neo-Taoism and Buddhism became the dominant philosophical trends. Although Confucian institutions have continued since the Han dynasty, insights on the philosophical level were revived only during the Sung and the Ming dynasties.
[38] The idealistic wing of Neo-Confucianism, represented by the philosophies of Lu Hsiang-san and Wang Yang-ming, raised the mind into an ultimate metaphysical principle. The issues involved, however, are too complicated to be discussed here. Professor Mou Tsung-san has recently published three monumental volumes in Chinese dealing with the problem. See his Hsin-t'i yu hsing-t’i (Taipei: Cheng-chung, 1968-69).
[39] For the Confucian philosophers man's material nature is not an intrinsic evil in itself;
the moral nature of man has to depend upon it to accomplish its purposes. However, the slave has a tendency to usurp the position of the master. Once this is done, evils inevitably follow. The Sung philosophers made searching analyses of man's material nature in answer to the Buddhist emphasis upon the negative aspect of human life,

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have been very welt expressed by the words of Chang Tsai in his "The Western Inscription":

Heaven is my father and Earth is my mother, and even such a small creature as I find an intimate place in their midst.

One who knows the principles of transformation will skillfully carry forward the undertakings [of Heaven and Earth], and one who penetrates spirit to the highest degree will- skillfully carry out their will.

Wealth, honor, blessing, and benefits are meant for the enrichment of my life, while poverty, humble station, and sorrow are meant to help me to fulfillment.

In life I follow and serve [Heaven and Earth]. In death I will be at peace. [40]

By following the ancient Confucian and the Sung-Ming Neo-Confucian tradition in the foregoing discussion I hope I have conveyed the Confucian "ultimate concern." [41]

ll.

If my presentation of traditional Confucian thought as having religious significance is correct, then the view which holds that Confucianism teaches only a secular moral ethics must be erroneous. The message of the transcendent permeates the Confucian tradition. In fact, it has a unique way of handling the problem that transcendence and immanence present to any serious religious thinker. The current neglect of the religious import of Confucian philosophy is caused by the misconception that in the Chinese tradition only Taoism and Buddhism have something important to say about the transcendent, while the meaning of Confucianism is confined to the secular realm. As has been argued in this paper, Confucianism is certainly not without its aspiration toward an ultimate concern. Thus it should be seriously considered as one alternative in world religions. The implications of this tradition may be further clarified when its basic teachings are compared with the Christian doctrines concerning God, man, the Christ, grace, and the church. [42]

1. The Christian belief in a supreme personal god is presented to man as a paradox. On the one hand. God is believed to have created the world out of

[40]The Western Inscription," in Chan, Source Book, pp. 497-498.
[41] After the Ming dynasty, Confucian philosophy again suffered a process of degeneration. During the Ch'ing dynasty philosophical speculation gave way to pragmatism and historiographical studies. Until the twentieth century traditional ideologies were under strong attack owing to the impact of Western influence, but there have been always outstanding individuals devoted to a reconstruction of traditional philosophical insights.
[42] In my presentation of Christian thought I shall relate only those views which are commonly accepted by Christian believers, and not attempt to deal with more sophisticated interpretation of Christian dogmas.

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nothing, The nature of the Creator is not to be measured by what is created. In other words, the Christian God is pure transcendence; He is the Wholly Other. Yet on the other hand, human history and human destiny would not be comprehensible apart from a proper understanding of the divine will. Not only is the human species created for the purpose of glorifying God, but the divine- will is revealed to man in every phase of human history. God has actually sent His Son, Jesus the Christ, to the world for the salvation of the human soul. Human history has thus both a center and an end. It is in this sense that Christianity has been characterized as a historical religion. The divine message is perennially immanent in the human world. In contrast to this Christian belief, the Chinese seem to move further and further away from the belief in a supreme personal god. Revelation is not allowed to be a source of knowledge, and apart from the natural order there is no need for a supernatural order. But the Chinese do have faith in a supreme creative power that is constantly operating in the universe. It may be called the transcendent, because, in contrast to the operation of limited human capacity, it can comprise everything without leaving anything out, and it can accomplish everything without making any effort. There is little doubt that the Confucian philosophers believe in a supreme rational power higher than that manifested on the human level. But it Is not beyond human power to experience the unfathomable and to form a perfect union with it. Thus it is established that it is not the case that the Chinese do not believe in God, if by the term "God" is meant the ultimate creative power in the universe; instead the case is that the problem of the transcendence and immanence of God is conceived in a fashion different from that of Christian belief.

2. Christians believe that God has created man as the noblest creature on earth, and that man is endowed with the ability to use his own free will. Unfortunately, his free will is misused, and the Fall is the result; a man will not receive his salvation unless he accepts the Christian faith. The Confucian philosophers-also believe that man is the noblest product of Heaven, since only he has the ability to comprehend the message of Heaven and to join forces with the creative powers operating in the universe. Man's original endowment is good, but his tendency toward the achievement of a fulfilled life may be thwarted either by an unfavorable environment or by his failure to develop the nobler part of his existence. It is here that man must consciously make his existential decision. Either he.shall uncover the depth dimension in himself and consciously cultivate this dimension so as to form a. current with Heaven and earth, or he shall live the depraved live of a beast. There is no Fall, no Original Sin involved. Only the material, physical, and selfish desires of human beings are strong-, and the great men who would rather follow their reflections than habitual reactions are rare. The Confucian emphasis upon the function

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of education and discipline indicates that a profound understanding of the negative aspects of life is not lacking in tills tradition.

3. Faith in Christ marks off Christians from other religious believers- The Christ was sent to the world to atone for the sin of man. He sacrificed his own life in order to give a new life to man. What he delivered was the message of the other world. The Christ is declared to be fully roan and fully god. Only unconditional faith in Him will set man free. The Confucian tradition would never allow a living man to be in any sense identified as a god. There are, of ' course, divinely human beings who have achieved inward sageliness as well as outward kingliness. They are almost godlike creatures, but they are fully men, never gods. In the Christian tradition a man can never be the equal of Christ. Christ is unique in history; other people can only have faith in him. For the Chinese, in principle anyone can be a sage provided he is capable of realizing to the fullest extent the great potentiality within himself. It is true that Confucius is unique and incomparable, but there is no intrinsic necessity that Confucius has to be the greatest sage in the world. There were generations of sage-emperors or sage-ministers who paved the way for the rise of Confucius, and after him there were generations of virtuous men who contributed to upholding the tradition. If Confucius set an example for common people to follow, it means, at least in principle, that his example can be followed, even if his greatness will never be repeated. Thus the belief in Confucius is not of the same kind as the faith in Christ.

4. In the Christian tradition the cardinal sin is human hubris, to be forgetful of the message from the transcendent. The effort to reach salvation by oneself is not only impossible, even the thought of it is an indication of improper human arrogance. Therefore, the only way to be saved is to have faith in Christ and to pray for grace bestowed by the Almighty. Human reason is impotent with regard to matters of ultimate concern, and it should do no more than serve the purpose of faith. The Confucian tradition, on the contrary, has placed exclusive emphasis upon the effort by the self. It is man who has to listen to his reason, to make his own existential decision, and to subject himself to strict moral discipline, so that he can uncover the depth dimension that is inherent in himself, realize to the fullest extent his own great potentiality, and form a perfect union with the supreme Creative Power that operates in the universe. Unless the mind sets a basic goal for itself, nothing can be accomplished. But there is no danger of self-righteousness, because once the union with Heaven and Earth is accomplished, the unduly selfish desires, of the small self are cast away, An individual would inevitably feel a sense of frustration or anxiety, if he could identify himself only with his small self which must face obstructions from all sides and has little power to overcome them. The liberation comes when one Joins forces with the creative powers in the world

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and forms a current with Heaven and Earth. He is contributing something, however little, to the grand creative process in the universe according to his due. A profound truth about human life is that, as soon as one's destiny is realized, it is at the same time being transcended. One can never fully anticipate and control all the events that will happen in one's life, but to commit oneself to live according to the Way is to make one spiritually free.

5. Since the secular order and the sacred order are sharply distinguished -From one another in the Christian tradition, a special organization, that is, the 'church, is needed in establishing a spiritual community in distinction from other secular types of communities. The outcome is again a paradox. Although the aim of the church is by no means a. secular one, the church has been developed into a great secular power capable of contending" with other secular organizations such as the state. The conflict between the church and the state has been a constant theme in European history. In China, since the creative power is believed to work in every phase of human life, no particular organization for religious purposes is needed other than the political and educational institutions of the state. Ancestor worship is practiced in every household. In fact, it constitutes a part of the Confucian system of rites. The sacrifice to Heaven is preserved as the privilege of the emperor. Such sacrifice is also an integrated part of the Confucian system of rites. The conspicuous lack of disruption between the secular order and the sacred order characterizes Chinese civilization. It is perhaps because of this character that many Westerners are induced to believe that the Chinese are irreligious, and fail to notice that religious sentiments have been expressed by Chinese in a different vein from that which is familiar to the West.

In the above analysis ideas of the Christian and the Confucian beliefs have been contrasted. What may easily escape notice is the fact that it is one religious faith that is contrasted with another religious faith. Both being religious faiths, they must also have something in common. A dialogue between the two may prove to be beneficial for both.
The interchange of ideas between the two traditions may yield even more fruitful results if we shift our attention, to the contemporary development of Christian theology or philosophy in the West and compare its insights with those developed within a Confucian philosophical framework. [43] The modern

[43] Since most Western readers do not know much about contemporary developments in Chinese philosophy, and this is not a place for me to give a detailed account of the contributions made by such distinguished scholars as Professors Hsiung Shih-li, Mou Tsung-san, T'ang Chun-i, and Thome H. Fang to the Confucian philosophical tradition, I shall give only my personal views of those issues. Likewise I shall refer only to general trends of theology or religions philosophy in the West without making precise distinctions that otherwise wou!d be needed. Within the limits of the present paper, scholarship has to be sacrificed for insight, but I hope I shall be able to make up for what I have been compelled to neglect here.

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trends which I would like to mention briefly here are: (1) existentialist theology, (2) demythologization, (3) a symbolic approach to religious language, (4) the Death of God theology, (5) secularization, and (6) the concept of becoming and creativity. The teaching's found in these various trends may not always be compatible with one another, but they all show an eagerness to revitalize the Christian message and to reconstruct it in such a way that it will answer to the needs of the present situation. I would like to contend also that these trends tend toward certain teaching's that are very close to what have been usually regarded as essential Confucian philosophical teachings.

1. Western theology seems to have found a new source of inspiration in the development of contemporary existentialist philosophy. [44] Existentialism as a trend has denied that the objective, scientific mode of thought can get at a more profound understanding of human life. Following the Kierkegaardian dictum that "Truth is subjectivity," the existentialist theologians feel that it is only through a leap of faith and through the courage to make an existential decision that one would accept the Christian message, which from the point of view of human reason seems to be full of myths, enigmas, and even absurdities. The Confucian philosophers would agree with the existentialist theologians that it is not through the method of empirical generalization that we can establish the existence of a supreme creative power in the universe. The senses can never reach the metaphysical principle. It is only through an inner illumination and realization of the depth dimension in man that he can grasp the subtlety of the function of the principle of creativity. But the Confucian philosophers would not in any sense renounce the function of reason- The problem of faith against reason does not seem to exist for them, because it is precisely through the utmost exertion of the function of reason that the principle of transformation is revealed to man. Reason is not identical with the intellectual function of the mind, which conducts logical reasoning and empirical generalization on the phenomenal level, It penetrates deep into the heart of the cosmic mystery.

2. There is a strong tendency within the Christian tradition today to practice the art of demythologization, to extricate the Christian message from its mythological associations. The effort is to correct unnecessary misunderstanding in order to recover the profound meaning of the kerygmatic affirmation that God acted in Jesus Christ in the New Testament. [45] It seems, however,

[44] JoIin B. Cobb, Jr., Living Options in Profestanf Theology (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1962), pp. 199-226.
[45] The leader of this movement is Rudolf Bultmann. For a brief introduction to his thought, see Cobb, Living Options, pp. 227-258.

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that total demythologization cannot be carried out in the Christian tradition. [46] In the Chinese tradition, however, a more radical type of demythologization has been practiced since the time of Confucius. The message of the transcendent is thoroughly cut off from its association with myths. The profound mystery of life is realized when one is capable of uncovering the rich source of meaning' within one's own existence. The examples of the sages are needed for the sake of transmitting valuable human experiences to future generations, but true mystery lies in the heart of every individual. No faith in any external authority will help to bring about one's own enlightenment.

3. Closely related with the movement of demythologization is Paul Tillich's attempt to elucidate the basic symbolic character of religious language. He sharply distinguishes between (a) the function of signs and the function of symbols; (b) scientific understanding and religious aspiration; and (c) empirical belief and transcendent faith. [47] Except for a gross misunderstanding, religious faith in the ultimate stands in no opposition to empirical knowledge of the world. The language of faith is the language of symbols, because symbolic language alone is able to express the ultimate. [48] The Confucian philosophers would heartily accept the view that the language of the ultimate is symbolic in nature. That language cannot exhaust meaning has always been a basic tenet of the Chinese philosophical tradition. The Chinese understand profoundly the fact that reality in process can never be recaptured by human artificial linguistic devices. Symbols are never more than pointers to reality. Once reality is grasped, language is transcended and is no longer needed. It is in this sense that silence, paradoxically, is the best way of communication. Thus the Chinese enjoy using an extremely flexible symbolic language to convey their experience of the ultimate, without at the same time letting symbols replace reality, since all symbols have to point beyond themselves toward that which is being symbolized. [49]

[46] Paul Tillich is of the opinion that "all radical attempts to demythologize religion are in vain." See his Systematic Theology, 3 vols. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951, 1957, 1963), III, 142. For Tillich, demythologization is to be reinterpreted as deliteralization. See Systematic Theology, II, 152. Therefore it is not an accident that Tillich has developed the theory that religious language is symbolic language, which is to be discussed in the following paragraph.
[47] For Tillich's theory of religious symbol see his Dynamics of Faith (New York: Harper &Bros., 1957).
[48] Except for the statement: "God is Being itself," Tillich holds that all statements made about God are symbolic in nature. The reason he holds that this statement is literal in meaning is that he is afraid otherwise there will be no point of contact with extralinguistic reality. The Chinese do not believe any such literal statement is possible because language" is never adequate to express reality. Reality and the experience of reality come first, the language used to refer to them is second. It is due to such a sobering understanding of the limited function of language that the Chinese are prevented 1'i-om confusing symbols with reality itself.
[49] The ordinary language-analysis movement following the later Wittgenstein tends to restore meaning to discussions of religious discourse after the ruthless attacks on it by logical positivism. But the Chinese would contend further that even if the problem of language is important, the most important problem is still the experience of reality, which cannot be replaced by any form of linguistic analysis.

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4. In more recent times the development in America of a radical theology, the Death of God theology, has shocked the minds of conservative Christian believers. [50] These unorthodox thinkers declare that God is dead and that the traditional Christian concept of God has no relevance to the modern situation or to human existence in general. Unlike traditional believers they tend to take seriously the challenge from atheism. In fact, they seem to have attempted to develop a Christian atheism, which would safeguard the meaning of the Christian message in an increasingly secularized world by extricating it from an outmoded belief in the traditional concept of God. In the Chinese tradition it seems that God has been dead since the time of Confucius, which was about five centuries before the advent of the Christian era. The changes brought about by a new age of science and technology do not seem to be needed to awaken the Chinese mind to renounce the belief in a supreme personal God. The Chinese seem implicitly to have asserted for a long time the independence of the genuine religious message from the belief in a supernatural power intervening in the natural course of events.

5. The trend of secularization is most conspicuous in the development of twentieth century theology. It was Dietrich Bonhoeffer who coined the phrase, "man comes of age," by which he meant that man has become adult in the sense that he refuses to fall prey to any religion that tries to make him dependent on things on which he is, in fact, no longer dependent. Paradoxically, it is God's will, revealed in Jesus, that has forced man to recognize the de-divinization of the world and its gods and that has called man to an acceptance of his free and autonomous responsibility for the world. There can. be no more division of the world into two spheres, one sacred and the other secular. [51] As has been argued earlier in this paper, the sacred and the secular have never been sharply distinguished from one another in the Chinese tradition. Without neglecting the message of the transcendent, the Confucian philosophers are convinced that Heaven and man can be in perfect union, and man has occupied

[50] For the Death of God theology movement, see Thomas J. J. Altizer and William Hamilton, Radical Theology and the Death of God (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1966), and Thomas J. J. Altizer,ed., Toward a New Christianity (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1967).
[51] For a very brief introduction to Bonhoeffer and his ideas, see John D, Godsey, Preface to Bonhoeffer (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 196S). Also see Dietrich Bonhoeffer Ethics (New York: Macmillan Co., 19S5), and his Letters awf Papers from Prison (New York: Macmillan Co., 1962). Some contemporary theologians went so far as to declare that modern values are better suited to express man's religious concern than medieval values. An example may be found m Harvey Cox, The Secular City, rev. ed. (New York: Macmillan Co., 1966).

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a pivotal position in the universe, 'because it is man who can make the Way great, and not the. Way that can make man great.

6. It is interesting to note that after two thousand years of commitment to faith in a God of pure transcendence, who is beyond all change, all evils, and all limitations, there is now a movement in the West that tends to reconstruct the concept of God into a God of Becoming, This is in contrast to the traditional concept of God as symbolized by Being that follows the philosophical interpretation of the Greek ontological tradition. [52] The consequences of adopting, such a new concept of God. remain to be seen. There is little doubt, however, that the trend moves closer to the Chinese tradition, which prefers not to talk about God, but never shies away from the search for the Great Ultimate in terms of a penetrating understanding of the principle of transformation and creativity operating in the universe.

If the foregoing observations are somewhere near the truth, then the two great religious traditions, with basic ideas which at first sight appear to be incompatible, are being brought closer together today. Meaningful interchange of ideas is possible and should prove beneficial for both traditions.

IV.

Religious experience is universal in mankind, but manifestations of it may be widely divergent. Any religious faith that fails to answer to the needs of the time is bound to die. Every great religious faith in the world perpetuates itself by making significant distinctions between what is living and what is dead in the tradition and by reconstructing its message in such a way that it will become relevant to the present situation.

The danger of modern civilization seems to be the converse of that of the Middle Ages. Then the sacred seems to have subdued the secular; today the secular seems to be in the ascendancy. With all his progress, man is troubled in his mind more in modern times than in any previous age. Man can work toward his personal gains, toward social justice, etc., but these efforts do not seem to have solved the problem in his heart, If Paul Tillich's diagnosis of the modern situation is sound, that the main threat to modern man is the question of meaninglessness, then a quest for a religious answer is unavoidable. [53] But

[52] Whitehead may be said to be the mentor of the movement. Such contemporary religious philosophers as Charles Hartshorne and Henry Nelson Wieman have tried, each in his own way, to construct a new concept of God that emphasizes relalivity, creative interchange, etc.
[53] Paul Tillich, The CourageTo Be (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1952), pp. 40-63.

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before we can go very far toward the future, we must first examine the past from a comparative point of view. I hope that this paper will open up rich possibilities for future research and constructive efforts.