Traditional definitions of the term dhamma

·期刊原文
Traditional definitions of the term dhamma

By John Ross Carter
Philosophy East and West
26:3
July, 1976
p. 329-337

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p. 329

Among the technical terms in the Theravaada Buddhist
vocabulary perhaps none is so puzzling and
comprehensive as the term dhamma. For some time
Western scholars-philosophers, buddhologists,
historians, philologists, historians of
religion--have been considering this term, probing
its denotations and connotations, occasionally
becoming perplexed, often showing flashes of insight.
Whereas a good deal has been written on what has come
to be called Hindu dharma as a frame of reference for
extrapolating patterns of ethical behavior in India,
less has been done with the notion dhamma in the
Theravaada Buddhist tradition.

My intention in writing this brief article is not
to become engaged here with the various
interpretations offered for the many dimensions of
meaning in the term dhamma, or to express an opinion
on the meaning of the term in one or another passage,
or to argue that the term first carried one meaning
and then another in an early or later century. This
task, of course, would require a monograph. Rather, I
wish to place before the reader traditional
commentarial definitions offered by Buddhists and
drawn from Paali and Sinhalese Theravaada sources.
This organizational plan was adopted for the
following reasons: (l)sources hitherto published in
Western languages have not provided a complete
listing of passages in the Paali commentaries where
the term dhamma is discussed in detail; (2) the work
of Professor Wilhelm and Mrs. Magdalene Geiger (to be
noted below) is limited to the meaning of the term in
the canonical literature, with the exception of a
brief passage in which some of the commentarial
definitions are noted, and is no longer readily
available; (3) the discussion of the term
dhamma/dharma in Sinhalese Buddhist literature is, on
the whole, unknown in the West; (4) one engaged in
comparative studies, philosophical and religious,
would have at hand, in a concise form, references to
the passages to which one could turn to find the
traditional definitions of the term; in short, one
would have a lexical entry representing the standard
definitions of the term that the Theravaada Buddhist
tradition has maintained in the course of
approximately two thousand years.

Turning to a consideration of the traditional
definitions of the term dhamma, one notes that the
most complete work in a Western language dealing with
the meaning of the term in the Paali canonical
literature, from a philological perspective, is the
impressive work by Magdalene and Wilhelm Geiger,
Paali Dhamma: vornehmlich in der kanonischen
Literatur.(1) Professor and Mrs. Geiger noted some
Paali commentaries available at the time of their
research and, on the basis
---------------------
EDITOR'S NOTE: This article is designed to put at
the disposal of scholars and philosophers undertaking
comparative studies some reference materials that
hopefully will enable them to work more readily with
the difficult and significant concept of Dhamma in
the Theravaada Buddhist tradition. The author hopes
that this brief article will stimulate comparative
philosophers to address questions that arise in any
consideration of this concept with its wide range of
meaning.

John Ross Carter is Assistant Professor of
Philosophy and Religion at Colgate University,
Hamilton, N.Y.

p. 330

of comments recorded at DA.I.99. l ff., DhsA.38.23,
and DhA.I.22 (New Edition, p.18, on Dhp. vs.1),
structured five traditional meanings of the term.(2)

(1) gu.na (DA., DhsA., DhA.)
(2) desanaa (DA., DhA.)
(3) hetu (DhsA.)
(4) pariyatti(DA., DhsA., DhA.)
(5) nissatta (DA., DhA.), nissatta-nijjiiva (DhsA.)

The Geigers remarked that these five categories
encompassed the principal meanings of dhamma. Being
careful researchers, this husband and wife team did
not overlook aadiisu (locative plural form of aadi,
"etcetera," "and so forth"), a very important part of
the commentarial discussion, and shared with the
commentarial tradition an awareness that the five
general categories did not exhaust the meaning and
subtle nuances of the term.(3)In the course of their
thorough work, more than fifty German terms as
translations of the one Paali word dhamma were
suggested.

In 1923, approximately three years after the
Geigers' Paali Dhamma had appeared, the fourth
fascicle ("Cit--No") of the Paaii Text Society's
dictionary became available. In their entry under
dhamma, T. W. Rhys Davids and William Stede referred
the reader to the study by Professor and Mrs. Geiger
and noted, "The exhaustive monograph...reached the
editors too late to be made use of for the
Dictionary."(4) Rhys Davids and Stede referred to
three passages in the commentaries, as had the
Geigers, DA.I.99, DhsA.38, DhA.I.22 (New Edition, p.
18), and, similarly, provided their readers with over
fifty English terms, concepts, for the one Paaii term
dhamma.(5)

These two admirable sources, drawing from three
Paaii commentaries, provided the reader with five
basic definitions--with aadi one might suggest six
definitions--of the term dhammu. From the commentary
on the Diigha-nikaaya (DA.), four definitions were
recorded. This text mentions, "The word dhamma occurs
with regard to quality [gu.na, meaning quality in the
sense of virtuous, moral quality], teaching
[desanaa], authoritative teaching [pariyatti conveys
the meaning of that to be mastered, learned by
heart], that without a living being [nissatta] and so
forth."(6)

As an example of dhamma's meaning gu.na, the DA.
notes a verse drawn from the Theragaathaa:

By no means are dhamma and adhamma of equal
recompense.
Adhamma leads to hell; dhamma causes the
attainment of a good bourne.(7)

To illustrate dhamma as desanaa this commentary
gives the opening phrase of a popular passage
characterizing dhamma: "`O bhikkhus I will teach you
dhamma, which is admirable in its beginning' and so
forth."(8) The commentary mentions a frequent refrain
as an example of dhamma's meaning pariyatti: "Now
then, a bhikkhu masters dhamma, that is, sutta [the
discourses heard from the mouth

p. 331

of the Buddha and passed down orally], geyya
[sections to be chanted],' and so forth." For
nissatta the commentary states, "`In this connection
there are dhammas, there are aggregates [khandhus],'
and so forth."(9)

The Atthasaalinii (DhsA.), a commentary on the
Dhammasa^nga.nii, also lists four meanings of
dhamma.(10) It differs from DA. in that it
substitutes hetu, "cause," for desanaa, "teaching,"
and adds the term nijjiivataa, "lifelessness," to
nissatta. This commentary considers dhamma to mean
hetu in the passage, "analysis of dhammn is knowledge
with regard to cause [hetu]."

The commentary on the Dhammapada (DhA.) follows
closely the presentation of DA. and incorporates the
term nijjiiva, using it as a synonym for
nissatta.(11) The Sinhalese glossary on DhA.,
Dhampiyaa A.tuvaa G?tapadaya (DAG) , p. 15, in
elaborating the DhA. presentation regarding nissatta,
nijjiiva, says, "`There are dhammas' means there are
only dhammas because they are void in nature of self
and that belonging to a self."

The commentary on the Majjhima-nikaaya (MA.)
gives a more comprehensive definition of dhamma than
that noted by the Geigers and the PTSD. "Now this
word dhamma appears as authoritative teaching
[pariyatti], truth(s) [sacca], rapt concentration
[samaadhi], wisdom [pa~n~naa], natural condition
[pakati], inherent nature [sabhaava], voidness
[su~n~nataa], merit [pu~n~na], vinaya violation, that
is, an offense committed within the sa^ngha
[aapatti], that to be known [~neyya] and so forth
[aadi]."(12)

To illustrate dhamma as "truths," MA. notes
di.t.thadhammo, viditadhammo, "one who has seen
dhamma, who has known dhamma." Interesting is the
interpretation of dhamma as samaadhi. MA. quotes
briefly from D.II.8 (or D.II.54) (13) a passage
enumerating characteristics of the Bhagavans: "They
were of such names, such lineages, such morals
[eva.m-siilaa], such dhammas [eva.m-dhammaa], such
wisdom [eva.m-pa~n~naa]...."(14) The triad--siila,
samaadhi, pannaa--is often found in Paali literature
and serves to hold together aspects of religious
life. However, dhamma, in both singular and plural
forms, is found apparently in the place of
samaadhi.(15) MA. notes that dhamma so used has to do
with samaadhi and the commentarial tradition appears
to be consistent.(16)

Quoting from the Jaataka, MA. notes a passage in
which dhamma is to be understood as "wisdom."

For whom there are these four dhammas,
O Lord of monkeys, as in your case,
Truth, dhamma [that is, pa~n~naa, "wisdom"],
courage, liberality,
He overcomes the visible [world].(17)

Dhamma also means "natural condition" or "natural
state" [pukati]. The subtle nuances between pakati
and sabhaava, "inherent nature, " seem not of
importance in interpreting one dimension of dhamma.
MA.I. 17 quotes M.I. 161-162, jaatidhamma, "that
having as dhamma birth," and glosses it with pakati.
However, the same commentary, MA.II.170, notes
regarding jaati-

p. 332

dhamma at M.I.161-162, "jaatidhammo ti
jaayanasabhaavo," "that having as dhamma birth means
that having the inherent nature of arising."(18)

Dhamma in such places as kusalaa dhammaa,
"wholesome dhammas, " is used in the sense of
sabhaava, "inherent nature," according to MA.I.17.
Dhamma means su~n~nataa, "voidness," when it is said,
"now in this case there are dhammas." Dhamma Is used
in the sense of meritorious behavior (pu~n~na) when
it is said, "Dhamma well lived brings ease."(19) In
the phrase "two undetermined dhammas,"(20) dhamma is
noted as aapatti, "vinaya violation or offense within
the sa^ngha."

Dhamma also is used to designate "that to be
known" (~neyya), and when used in the plural, might
be translated "knowables." To illustrate this meaning
the MA. notes, "All dhammas come into focus by every
means in the face of the knowledge of the Buddha, the
Bhagavan."(21)

The commentary on the Buddhava.msa(22) follows
the definitions listed in MA. with only one
alteration. Whereas in MA. "truths" is the second
definition, BuA, places it last and is more explicit
in stating catusaccadhammo, "dhamma that pertains to
[the] four [noble] truths."

The Dharmapradiipikaa (Dhpr.), a Sinhalese text
written as a commentary on the Paali Mahaabodhiva.msa
and dated from about A.D. 1200, provides twelve
definitions for the word dhamma. Taking as an example
passages where di.t.thadhamma pattadhamma occur, the
author defines dhamma as the paths, fruits, and
nirva.na. (23) Another definition, not thus far noted
is vyavahaaraya, "that which is customary,
proper."(24) A noteworthy variation on the meaning of
dhamma in a particular passage in the canon is given
in the Dhpr. A canonical passage speaks of the
Bhagavans as being characterized by "such morals
[eva.m-siilaa], such dhammas [eva.m-dhammaa], such
wisdom [eva.m-pa~n~naa](25) The Paaii commentarial
tradition interprets dhammaa here, in the plural, as
having to do with samaadhi.(26) However, Dhpr. takes
dhammas in such passages as referring to the natures
of the Bhagavans.(27) In presenting the remainder of
the definitions, the Dhpr. differs insignificantly
from what has already been noted.

Another list of definitions of dhamma is given
concisely in the Abhidhaanappadiipikaa, a Paaii
dictionary that probably preceded the Dhpr. by a few
years.(28)

Two more sources, both in Sinhalese, may be noted
and their definitions given in order to bring the
survey of the definitions up to relatively recent
times. One source, the Abhidhaanappadiipikaasuuci,
was written by W. Subhuuti nearly ninety years ago.
It is a work explaining more fully the definitions
given in the Abhidhaanappadiipikaa. The second source
is the admirable Sinhalese dictionary, `Srii
Suma.ngala `Sabdako.sa, compiled by the learned
Welivi.tiyee Sorata approximately twenty years ago.

The Abhidhaanappadiipikaa gives the compound
sacccappakati as a definition of dhamma and Subhuuti
takes sacca, in the compound, as "truth."(29) In his
Abhidhaanappadiipikaasuuci, Subhuuti defines dhamma
in terms of "truth" in the

p. 333

singular: "[dhamma occurs] in the sense of `truth' in
such passages as one having seen dhamma, having
attained dhamma'."(30) The commentary on the
Majjhima-nikaaya (MA.) speaks of "truths" in its
listed definitions, and the commentary on the
Buddhava.msa speaks of "dhamma that is the four
truths," or "dhamma that pertains to [the] four
[noble] truths."(31) Some Sinhalese sources had
incorporated nirvaa.na into their translation of the
phrase.(32)

Subhuuti adds several synonyms to our expanding
list of definitions of dhamma: "constitution,
quality, " (vikaara), "condition" (paccaya), "that
which has arisen conditionally (paccayuppanna) ,
"object" (visaya), and "custom" (yutti), and as a
separate term, nibbaana. These additions to the list
of meanings, Subhuuti mentions, fall into the
category of aadi, "etcetera, " noted in the
Abhidhaanappadiipikaa.(33)

Sorata, in his Sinhalese dictionary, gives
additional terms in his list of definitions: "the
noble path" (aaryamaarga), "the texts that are the
three pi.takas" (tripi.takapaaliya), "good conduct"
(sucaritaya), and "that which was spoken by the
Buddha" (buddhabhaa.sitaya).(34)

In concluding this survey I will list the
definitions of the term dhamma given in the Paaii and
Sinhalese Theravaada Buddhist sources consulted:(35)

Code Numbers of Sources Consulted:
DA. 1 MA . 4 Dhpr. 7
DhsA 2 BuA . 5 AbhidhpS. 8
DhA. 3 Abhidhp. 6 `Sssk. 9

buddhabhaa.sita "that which was spoken by the Buddha" 9
gu.nu "quality, in the sense of virtuous, moral quality"
desanaa "teaching" 1, 3, 7
pariyatti "authoritative teaching, texts"
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
nissatta "that without a living being" 1, 3, 6, 7, 8
nissatta-nijjiivataa "that without a living being-
lifelessness" 2, 8, 9
su~n~nataa "emptiness, voidness": 4, 5, 9
hetu "cause" 2, 9
saccaani "truths" 4,6?
catusaccadhamma "dhamma that pertains to [the]
four [noble] truths" 5
sacca "truth" 6?, 8, 9
samaadhi "rapt concentration" 4, 5, 6, 8, 9
pa~n~na "wisdom" 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 pakati "natural
condition" 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 sabhaava "inherent
nature" 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 pu~n~naa "merit" 4, 5, 6, 7,
8, 9 aapatti "an offense committed within the
sa^ngha"
4, 5, 6, 8, 9
~neyya "that to be known" 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
(aadi) "etcetera [that is, the scope of meaning of
the term is not exhausted by the definitions
listed]" 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8

p. 334

naaya "proper manner, propriety" 6, 8, 9
aacaara "[proper] conduct" 6, 8, 9
kaara.na "reason, cause" 6, 8, 9
maggaphalanibbaana "paths, fruits, and nibbaana" 7
ariyamagga (aaryamaarga) "noble path" 9
vyavahaara "that which is customary" 7
kusaladhamma "dhamma that pertains to what is wholesome" 7, 9
vikaara "constitution, quality" 8
paccaya "condition" 8
paccayasamuppanna "that which has arisen conditionally" 8
visaya "object" 8, 9
yutti "custom, fitness" 8, 9
nibbaana 9
tripi.takapaali "the texts that are the three pi.takas" 9
sucarita "good behavior, good conduct" 9

ABBREVIATIONS

Except where full bibliographical information is
noted, the Paaii texts are those issued by the Paaii
Text Society in their standard editions.
Abhidhp. Abhidhaanappadiipikaa nam Paalinigha.n.duva.
Edited by Moragall?Siri ~Naa.nobhaasatissa
Thera. Colombo: M. D. Gunasena, 1960.
Abhidhaanappadiipikaa: or Dictionary, of
the Paali Language.
Edited by Waska.duwe Subhuuti, 2d ed. Colombo:
Frank Luker, Acting Government Printer, 1883.
AbhidhpS. Abhidhaanappadiipikaasuuci. Subhuuti, W.
(Mahaa Thera), A Complete Index to the
Abhidhaanappadiipikaa, with Explanatory and
Grammatical Notes. Colombo: H. C. Cottle,
Acting Government Printer, 1893.
Bu. The Buddhava.msa
BuA. Madhuratthavilaasinii nama Buddhava.msa.t-
.thakathaa
D. The Diigha.nikaaya
DA. The Suma^ngala-vilaasinii: the commentary
on the Diighanikaaya
DAG Dahampiyaa A.tuvaa G?tapadaya. Edited by
Mada-Uyango.da Vimalakirti Thera and Nahinne
Sominda Thera. Colombo: M.Dr. Gunasena,
1967.
DhA. The Commentary on the Dhammapada:
Dhammapada.t.thakathaa
Dhp. The Dhammapada
Dhpr. Dharmapradiipikaa. Edited by Baddeegama
Vimalava.msa Thera, 2d ed. Colombo: M. D.
Gunasena & Co., 1967.
DhsA. The Atthasaalinii: the commentary on the
Dhammasa^nga.ni
Jaa. The Jaataka; Together with Its Commentary
M. Majjhima-nikaaya

p. 335

MA. Papa~ncasuudanii Majjhimanikaaya.t.thakathaa:
the commentary on the Majjhima-nikaaya
Mhbv. Mahaa-Bodhi-Va.msa
Pm. Paramatthamanjuusaa of Bhadantaacariya
Dhammapaala Thera: Or The Commentary of the
Visuddhimagga. Vols. 1-3, edited by
Morontu.duwe Dhammaananda Thera. Colombo:
Mahaabodhi Press, 1928 (Vol. 1), 1930 (Vol.
2), 1949 (Vol. 3).
P.ts Pa.tisambhidaamagga
S. The Sa.myutta-nikaaya
SA. Saarattha-ppakaasinii: the commentary on
the Sa.myutta-nikaaya
SdhRv. Saddharmaratnaavaliya. Edited by Kirialle
~Naa.navimala Thera. Colombo: M. D. Gunasena,
1961.
Sn Sutta-Nipaata
SnA. Sutta-Nipa