西藏死亡艺术

西藏死亡艺术
　　嘉雍群培
　　中央民族大学音乐学院教授
　　内容摘要：佛教从7世纪传入西藏以来，与本土文化相结合，形成了独具特色的藏传佛教。它影响著藏族人生活的方方面面，成为藏族文化的重要组成部分和藏族人的重要信仰。这可以从藏族人的死亡仪式中看出，同时，藏传佛教通过各种艺术形式反映其信条。在死亡仪式中运用的音乐及其深奥，展示出它与佛教教义的和谐与完美一致。
　　关键词：藏传佛教 生死轮回 因果报应 中阴救度 现实
　　人类的恐惧莫过于死亡，而藏族人对死亡的认识与众不同，他们所举行的死亡仪式，仿佛是在举行一种特殊的艺术休习，并认为死亡不是生命的终点，要进入中阴1，是新生的开始，是生命中最尊贵和最光荣的时刻。人们从小就开始接受死亡的教育和修行，在死亡仪式的整个过程中，艺术创作与实践与佛教思想完美结合，《西藏度亡经》2将其称为“死亡的艺术”。
　　藏传佛教对死亡的修习
　　藏传佛教的教育是从因果报应3，生死轮回4，诸行无常，有漏皆苦开始的，因此，藏族人对来世和死亡的重视往往超过了对诞生和现实的重视，追求生命的解脱为一生最高的理想。早期在西藏没有人去庆祝生日，而对死亡的重视和教育是从生开始，孩子在婴儿时期，就由母亲背著朝佛转经，并教唱六字真言歌“俺嘛呢叭咪哄”。藏传佛教认为，六字真言是一切佛教教义的根本和精髓，能破除六种烦恼，修六种般若行，获得六种佛身，生出六种智慧。
　　在藏区真言调很丰富，有长调也有短调，不同的地方或不同的供养唱不同的曲调。藏传佛教的“空”、“苦”思想，成为真言曲调的基本风格，因此，真言调的旋律以五声小调式为主，其中羽调式用的最多，色彩暗淡。
　　人生多难，为了避免以外的死亡和劫难，父母又要教你颂唱金刚上师咒：
　　“俺阿洪班杂咕噜叭嘛悉地哄”
　　据说这十二个字母带著佛陀说法十二部的整个加持，十二部教法能使人解脱“十二因缘”，脱离六道轮回，当你高唱它时，所闻者皆获巨大利益和功德。之外，还要教你皈依经和皈依曲，即皈依上师、皈依佛、皈依法和皈依僧。
　　这些诵唱的咒语歌，旋律平稳、柔和、情切，仿佛聆听上师的告诫，瞻仰大悲的尊容，滋生心性的智慧。
　　临终中阴中的心性显露
　　在藏区，对临终的人要举行一系列烦琐的宗教活动，首先要祈请四方神灵给予加持、护佑，所以在一些宗教活动和祭祀的地方，经常听到祈请上师的长调，用优美的词藻，悦耳的歌生去感化和达通神灵，祈求他们给危难者力量和勇气，摆脱病魔的缠绕，不受邪魔的拖曳。暗淡、柔和的旋律中透露出一丝迷茫、彷徨。
　　祈祷后进入禅定状态，为了临终者不因死亡而恐惧，上师开始轻轻的，有节奏的敲打临终者，设法使意念迁移，从锁骨敲到头顶，用情切、柔和、慈祥的语调念唱。上师继续敲打，声音逐渐放慢，放弱，不断重复，直到临终者抛开生命进入实相之境。最终得到上师的指导，放下恐惧的心，用平静、自然、喜悦的心情迎接死亡的到来，把死当成迎接新生必须经过的短暂的幻影，是很重要的，是进入涅磐或往生善趣的重要环节。
　　法性中阴的明光境界
　　由于业力的牵引，大多数人不能顿入根本明光，就要进入法性中阴的明光境界，这时枕前上师开始为亡者念唱迁识法，指导亡灵走上往生的旅程。迁识法的念唱方式各地略有不同，但大致可分为三种形式：
　　（一）念诵段以韵白的形式进行，节奏富于变化，变化中又讲究韵律的统一。
　　（二）部分段落具有较强的旋律性，旋律流畅，具有吟唱调的特点。
　　（三）在一定时间的平稳念唱后，突然击掌高唱。这种一静一乍有规律地多次反复，据称是为了不让亡者的心识依附于肉体，而不肯离去，因此以击掌高唱催促之。
　　家人还要为临终者请寺院念诵“救度大法”。尸体停放3天，期间昼夜不停地请喇嘛诵经，家人在院中煨桑供奉众神灵，高唱六字真言歌。
　　天葬
　　天葬，把藏传佛教的宇宙观、人生观和舍身精神体现的最为透彻，最为彻底，既显露出原始遗留的野蛮丧习，又蕴涵著无比虔诚的信仰和殊胜的睿智。
　　天葬，是亡者最后的施舍，也是最后的奉献,整个仪式过程充满了音乐。例如，僧侣们念唱一段度亡经后，解释生命缘起和因果轮回，这样，对死亡的恐惧就会减轻。如果灵魂在中因的最初状态能够意识到明光——这个中间阶段，他的灵魂就能解脱。
　　天葬师用长刀把尸体剥离分解，众鹰守候在四周，最初有一只体积最大的领头鹰摇摇摆摆上前啄食，之后，其余的鹰蜂拥而上，不一会儿就把肉吃得一干二净，只剩一堆骨头，天葬师们用锤把骨架、颅骨等砸碎，拌上糍粑，扔给鹰，直到吃尽。
　　投生中阴的再生意识
　　到投生中阴，亡者意生身具有一切知觉作用，渴望得到肉身，重返色界，遗族以各种方式进行祈祷供养，来配合亡者，如：
　　磕头、转经和诵唱明言
　　磕头，转经和诵唱咒言是一项殊胜的供养，是要终身修持，对亡者而言，此时的修持更为及时、迫切，是对亡者最大的帮助和支持。此时的六字真言长调，由于遗族失去情人的悲痛，显得倍感凄凉，在空旷的原野、山谷回荡，像是在哭诉，又像是在忏悔。
　　放飞风马、悬挂经幡和进行煨桑
　　为了避免再掉入无明的悲剧和轮回痛苦的生死中，遗族要放飞风马、悬挂经幡和煨桑，这是与灵界沟通的重要方式，在煨桑的同时一遍遍地高唱迎请众神灵长调。
　　寺院乐舞的救度法
　　藏传佛教所有的教派和寺院每年都要举行盛大的法会，法会中乐舞的表演是密宗仪式中很重要的一部分，目的是为了净坛祈福，施展佛威，降伏恶魔（阻碍佛法的外敌和困难），摧毁敌人（摧毁烦恼业障），使众生从无明解脱出来。其中还有一个目的，那就是对死亡的教育和对亡魂的救度。如桑耶寺表演的乐舞中就有这样的：
　　1、多处达波，即尸陀林乐舞，多处达波原为西藏苯教一厉神，后被莲花生收为佛教神灵中的底层护法神和指点迷津引入善道的精灵，令其守护天葬台。有些书上说他是天葬的执行者。有4人表演，身穿绘有嶙嶙骨架的服，头戴骷髅面具，在大鼓大钹乐曲中狂舞，表示对那些危害佛法的恶魔将严厉惩治，对因无明而妄念遮蔽的“罪恶之心”，转生为光明无碍的佛心。
　　2、冬阿，即超度者乐舞，13人表演，头戴大黑帽，身穿黑色大袍，腰围镶有人眼、口的围裙，挥舞著边达（缀有穗边的人头骨）和刀，踏著鼓点起舞，意把多处达波解送来的恶魔用利刀肢解，把灵魂送上天堂，表现出佛教的迁识法，让灵魂抛开肉体，进入中阴境相，也意为摆脱无明的蔽障，进入法心的世界。
　　3、措铃，措铃原是喇嘛桑堆巴的仆人，在这里化身为饿鬼、游魂，由20人表演，头戴凶恶的面具，身穿红依，吞食被冬阿肢解的碎食，意亡者为饿鬼作最后的施舍，宣扬佛教施舍的精神，鼓励人们用天葬作最后的施舍，以表达慈悲、慧智的佛心。
　　乐舞伴奏乐器有铜钦（大号），钹钹、嘉令（藏式大唢呐）风铃（人股骨号，也称鬼叫号）、海螺、铃锋、手鼓等乐器，演出气势恢弘、庄严、色彩浓厚，具有很强的震慑作用。
　　人们惧怕死亡，回避死亡，但没有一个人可以逃脱死亡，藏传佛教的教义正是围绕死亡的认识、教育和亡灵的救度进行，在抽象、深奥的教义基础上，用具象的语言、事例和艺术手法，潜移默化地感化和教育众生。佛教认为对死亡的教育是要揭开死亡的神秘，把生与死的真理告诉有情众生，这是佛心最伟大的体现，是智慧和慈悲的显现，让人们从死亡的恐惧中看到光明，看到希望。这种光明、希望、若即若离，似隐似现，仿佛唾手可得，似乎又远在天边，只有“见空性，发悲心”，才能透过死亡真正得到快乐。
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　　1、中阴：人从死到生之间的时间，为七七四十九天。
　　2、莲华生著 徐进夫译：《西藏度亡经》宗教文化出版社 1995年出版，第9页。
　　3、藏传佛教教义认为万事万物都在因果轮回之中，不能改变。
　　4、藏传佛教认为，由于“我执”，人们会有消极的情绪，那是因为他们对真相的无知，从而陷入生死轮回。
　　参考书目：
　　1、《西藏度亡经》连华生著 徐进夫译 宗教文化出版社 1995出版
　　2、《西藏生死之书》（美）索甲仁波切著 郑振煌译 中国社会科学出版 1999年出版
　　3、《藏传佛教》才让著 民族出版社 1999年出版
　　4、《藏族原始宗教》周锡银 望潮著 四川人民出版社 1999年出版
　　5、《喇嘛庙——佛的世界》李冀成 四川人民出版社 1986年出版
　　Tibetan art of death
　　Jiayong Qunpei
　　Translated by YangQiong
　　Abstract: Buddhism has been integrated with the local culture, eventually forming a unique variant of Buddhism with a strong Tibetan flavor, since its introduction into Tibet in the 7th century. Now, Tibetan Buddhism has permeated all aspects of Tibetan people’s lives, becoming an essential part of Tibetan culture as well as the Tibetan’s principal faith. A typical reflection of this can be found Tibetans’ death rituals. At the same time, Tibetan Buddhism has employed all possible artistic means and forms to disseminate its doctrines. The music used extensively in death rituals is especially profound, demonstrating its harmony and perfect identification with Buddhism ideology.
　　Key words: Tibetan Buddhism, cycle of birth and death, natural law of cause and effect, help in Bardo, realities
　　Generally speaking, death is the most profound one among human fears; however, Tibetans have a unique attitude toward it. Starting with their preparation (or education) for death, including the bardos1 of dying, realities, and rebirth, the whole process is full of inspiration and creativity as if it were a unique artistic discipline. Tibetans believe that a human being consists of both a soul and a body--- the body serving only to carry the immortal soul. Once the body dies, the soul will leave it and go into the state of realities. According to their karma a consciousness in bardo, the dead obtain either rebirth or nirvana. Therefore, the moment o death is not the end of life, but rather the glorious and supreme beginning of a new one. Tibetans begin their education and practices regarding death from childhood. Throughout the whole process of the death rituals, music gives full expression to the idea of the immortal soul and rebirth by perfectly merging with Buddhist doctrine and rituals. In the Tibetan Book of the Dead2, music itself is called ‘the art of death’.
　　Buddhist practices for death
　　Education in Tibetan Buddhism is based on the following concepts: the natural law of cause and effect3, the cycle of birth and death4 , impermanence, and the view that all contaminated things are miserable. As a result, Tibetans generally attach more importance to death and the next life than to birth and this life. To be free from this life is their highest ideal—in earlier days, lamas and laymen in Tibet did not celebrate their birthdays. In contrast, much attention was paid to education concerning death, which started the moment a person was born. For this reason, there are no birthday songs in Tibetan folk culcure. However, music, dance, sculptures and drawings on the theme of death can be found everywhere. Among them, music (including dances set to music), as a significant part of Buddhist doctrine and art, is extraordinarily rich. It can be concluded that understanding and use of music in Buddhist traditions is highly developed.
　　Buddhism holds that the universal mantra (Mani Padme Hum) is the foundation and essence of all Buddhist creeds. It helps people remove ignorance and gain wisdom. Before Tibetans can walk on their own, their mothers frequently carry them on their backs while worshipping Buddha and performing circumambulation, so from that time they begin to learn the chant of the universal mantra.
　　The form of the universal mantra chant varies widely. It includes long melodies and short melodies. Different melodies are employed for different occasions, temples or monasteries, and during different sacrificial rituals. In Tibetan language, the chant of the universal mantra is called Padem dbyangs ( Padem refers to classical scriptures or mantra, and dbyangs is music), which includes the mantra song, the conversion song, the song for invoking Buddha, and the tribute song.
　　To express the Buddhist theories, the melodies of Padem dbyangs are pleasantly low and full of sympathy, mainly by employing five-tone scales of the minor mode (among them the Yu tone is used most frequently). When we hear them, we feel as if we were listening to our masters’ teachings, or looking at our masters’ respectful faces above us, wisdom naturally occurring to our mind.
　　Beside the Padem dbyangs, Tibetan parents also teach their children the vajra guru mantra, namely OM AH HUM VAJRA GURU PADMA SIDDHI HUM .
　　Besides the vajra guru mantra, there are four conversion sutras and conversion tunes, namely, those of taking refuge in master, being converted to Buddha, taking refuge in dharma, and taking refuge in lamas.
　　These three tunes are the most basic and must be learned, memorized and repeatedly recited. In the eyes of Buddhists, these tunes are not music (or folk songs) in the general sense, for they cannot be recited or sung at all times or places. Instead, they chanted or sung only with a peaceful, sympathetic and concentrated mind in special situations and on specific occasions, for they are an essential part of Buddhist doctrines, and have the nature to awaken compassion and wisdom in people. All the mantras, tunes and songs mentioned above constitute a part of the fundamental education of Tibetan, by which they transform their attitude toward death and eventually gain complete freedom.
　　Songs for the Bardo Dying
　　Bardo means the transition period between a person’s death and his rebirth, which lasts 49days, every 7days of which a number of master are invited to chant the next of the dead. Texts and melodies vary each time.
　　In Tibetan areas, a series of diverse and complicated religious rituals are performed for dying. The first of them is to invoke deities from the four directions to bless and guard the dying. At religious rituals and places for offering sacrifice, the songs of prayer masters are frequently heard as follows:
　　When the dying is going to the end of his life and his spirit is passing away, a bedside master will be invited to help him or her spend the last moment and enter the bardo smoothly.To help the dying transfer his or her consciousness, the master will tap the dying gently and rhythmically from the clavicle to the top of the head, and in peaceful, kind, and sympathetic tones. The master will continue his tapping, gradually slowing down and lowering his voice while he repeats these words. He will not stop until the dying finally departs his life and enters reality.
　　Songs for the Bardo of Realities
　　The bardo of realities is the so-called the bardo of luminosity, in which the image of Yama, who is in charge of truth and justice, will appear, bringing light for this bardo and laying bare all the good and bad deeds of the deceased before his death.
　　To help the dead follow the masters’ instructions and eventually enter the marvelous Pure Land of Dewachen, it is necessary to guide their steps on a journey of the rebirth by means of a chant named the transference of the consciousness which is called Phowa in the Tibetan language, and is method of chanting varies from place to place. It is classified into three main types:
　　1. The recited parts are in the form of rhymes with changing rhythm, but special attention is paid to the unity between rhyme and rhythm;
　　2. Some parts have smooth and graceful melodies reminiscent of songs meant for singing ;( the example of music scores is omitted here)
　　3. After smoothly chanting for certain amount of time, the chanter will sing in a high voice along with the clapping of hands. This change will be repeated regularly (to frighten a spirit which is hesitant to the body).
　　Sky Burial
　　Sky burial is the principal burial custom of the Tibetan nationality, which shows the Tibetan Buddhism’s view of the universal, life and the spirit of sacrifice clearly.
　　Sky burial is the last alms of the dying. The ceremonies of sky burial are permeated with music. For example, the lamas chant the doctrines of emancipating Hpho for the dying；expound the primary and secondary causes of life as well as the cycle of existence. Therefore, the fear towards death can be alleviated. If the departed can realize the clear light at the initial stage of bardo---intermediate state, his Hpho can be emancipated.
　　The vultures are waiting around the burial site when the corpse cutter is cutting the body into pieces. At first, the biggest one flies unsteadily down to peck the dismembered corpses, then the rest swarm down. In a short time, all the flesh is gone, leaving behind only bones. The corpse cutter hammers these bones, including the skull, into pieces, and mixes them glutinous rice cakes before throwing them to feed the vultures. Eventually nothing of the body is left.
　　Songs for the Bardo of Rebirth
　　In the bardo of becoming, the mental body of the dead possesses all its senses and craves for a material body so as to return to the material world. To cooperate with the dead, the persons left behind to mourn should pray and off sacrifices in various ways.
　　(1) Kow-tow, circumambulation and chanting mantra
　　Kow-tow, circumambulation and chanting mantra are the best offerings, and should be practiced all one’s life. In the bardo of becoming, these practices are especially necessary and critical for the dead, and no other help or offering is comparable to them in this state. Meanwhile, singing the long melodies of the mantra of compassion is also very important. At that time, the manra just like cry and confess.
　　(2) Invoking Buddha and the images
　　After the master performs a divination based on the karma of the deceased and his moment of birth and death, particular Buddha images are invoked for the deceased to rely on. Furthermore, the people left behind to mourn invited skilled artists to draw Thang-gas (painted scrolls)
　　Musical Dances in the Monastic Rituals for Securing Souls
　　Every year all sects and all monasteries of Tibetan Buddhism hold grand religious ceremonies, in which the performances of musical dances are conducted to pray for happiness, purify altars, call upon the power of the Buddha, vanquish demons (including all enemies and difficulties impeding Dharma), therefore these songs and dances are one ways of educating about death and securing the soul of the dead. The following is an introduction to the musical dances staged in bSam-yasMonastery.
　　1. Dur-Khord-bdag-po. Dur-Khord-bdag-po was originally an evil god in Tibetan bonism. Later was taken by Guru Rin-po-che and became a low ranking guardian deity of Buddhism and a spirit which guides the souls of the dead into burial. The dance involves four dancers wearing skull masks and clothing designed to resemble a skeleton. They dance violently to the music of drams and cymbals, which symbolizes the severe punishment of these evil demons which harm Dharma. This dance also represents the transformation of those ‘sinful minds’, which hope to conceal themselves in the darkness of ignorance, into the luminous minds of Buddha, totally free from obscuration.
　　2. gTum-rngam. gTum-rngam refers to a musical dance performed by the man who secure the souls of the dead. It is performed by 13 men, who wear big black hats and black robes with an apron whose waist is decorated with human eyes and mouths. The dance symbolizes the dismemberment with sharp knives of the demons sent under guard of Dur-Khord-bdag-po and entering the world of Buddha.
　　3. Srin-po. The dance is performed by 20men in red, wearing vicious masks, and the swallow the pieces of the body which was dismembered by gTum—rngam. This represents the dead people’s last charity for hungry ghosts, exemplifies the Buddhist spirit of charity.
　　The musical instruments accompanying the dance s are Dung-chen (long trumpets), cymbals, rGya-gling(Tibetan-style suona horns), rkang-gling (thigh-bone trumpets, or ghost-call trumpets), conch-shell trumpets,bells, hand-drums(made of human skulls) and others.
　　Generally speaking, Tibetan Buddhism has a large and complicated system of Buddha. Music and dances play an important part. Musical dances are often singing in loud voices and dancing violently.
　　Human beings fear death and tend to recoil from it. However, no one can escape from death, so the doctrines and music of Tibetan Buddhism have produced and developed on the basis of the understanding of death and death education, and the securing of dead spirit. To some extent, only those who ‘see emptiness, have compassion’ can obtain real pleasure in death.
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　　1、Originally, this was an ancient Indian work and was translated in English under the title the Tibetan book of the death.
　　2、A Buddhist term means that all things in the world are the result of causes and cannot persist without change.
　　3、Buddhism believes that human beings have negative emotions because of self-grasping, which results from their ignorance of the truth.
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　　1.Padmasambhava(author), xu huasheng(translator),1995. The Tibetan book of the dead. Religious culture press.
　　2.Sogyal rinpoche(author), Zheng zhenhuang(translator), 1999. The Tibetan book of lving and dying. Chinese social science press.
　　3.Tshe-ring, 1999 Tibetan Buddhism. Ethnicity press.
　　4.Zhou wangyin and Wang chao, 1999. Tibetan primary religious. Sichuan remin press.
　　5.Li jicheng, 1986. Lama monasteries---the world of Buddha. Sichuan renmin press.