Skill-in-means and the Buddhism of Tao-sheng

·期刊原文
Skill-in-means and the Buddhism of Tao-sheng:
A study of a Chinese reaction to Mahaayaana of the fifth century
By David C. Yu
Philosophy East and West
vol.24.no.4(1974)
P 413-427

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413

This article is an attempt to investigate two
doctrines: skill-in-means as embodied in the Lotus
Suutra(1) (hereafter, Lotus) and sudden
enlightenment as expounded by the Chinese monk
Tao-sheng(a) (ca. A.D. 360-434). The reasons these
two doctrines may be juxtaposed are that they were
influential topics of discussion among the Chinese
Buddhist intellectuals in the fourth and fifth
centuries, and also that Tao-sheng's theory of
sudden enlightenment was chiefly a reaction to the
idea of skill-in-means. Since skill-in-means of the
Lotus was an Indian doctrine and sudden
enlightenment was a Chinese concept, a comparison of
these two should also reveal how the Chinese sangha
reacted to Indian Buddhism during the formative era
of Buddhism in China.

Although there have been three Chinese
translations of the Lotus (Saddharmapu.n.darika),
Kumaarajiiva's(b) version, translated in A.D. 406,
is generally identified, in East Asia, with the
Lotus.(2) Kumaarajiiva, a Kuchean monk, was in China
from 402 until his death in 413. The years preceding
and following his sojourn in China, 350 to 450, were
indeed a creative period of Chinese Buddhism. From
the point of view of Buddhist philosophy,
practically all the known Buddhist intellectuals of
this period were students of the Praj~naa school,
based upon the doctrine of 'suunyataa and derived
from the Suutras of the Perfect Wisdom
(Praj~naapaaramitaa).(3) It is known that in this
period Neo-Taoism asserted great influence upon the
intellectual Neo-scene(4) and that the philosophy of
praj~naa was interpreted in terms of the Taoist
concept of wu(c) (nonbeing), which will be explained
later in part two.

The domination of the Praj~naa school in China
in this period explains why the leading associates
and disciples of Kumaarajiiva were all students of
praj~naa. Tao-sheng, who was with Kumaarajiva for
three years (406-409) and probably assisted for the
translation of the Lotus, formulated his doctrine of
Buddha-nature on the basis of praj~naa philosophy.
Seng Chao(d) (374-414), author of the Chao-lun(e)
which synthesized the praj~naa thought with
Neo-Taoism, was with Kumaarajiiva during the entire
period of the latter's career in China. Hui-yuan(f)
(344-416), a student of Tao-an(g) who was a great
praj~naa master, exchanged eighteen letters with
Kumaarajiiva and was a close friend of Tao-sheng.

Despite the fact that the Lotus embodies the
greatest range of Mahaayaana doctrines, its central
concepts are two: praj~naa and skill-in-means.
Praj~naa is the absolute emptiness, being the wisdom
of Buddha; and skill-in-means is the relative,
referring to the phenomenal expressions for the
communication of the meaning of praj~naa. Although
this article deals with only one of these two
doctrines, in our explanation of skill-in-means, the
meaning of praj~naa will also be explicated.

I. SKILL-IN-MEANS

The Sanskrit word for skill-in-means is
upaayakau'salya, meaning an expedient, management,
or diplomacy.(5) This term has been variously
translated as skillfulness (Kern) ,
skill-in-expedients (Thomas) , convenient means
(Chan), skill-in-

414

means (Conze, Ch'en), or adaptability (Hurvitz). In
Kumaarajiiva's Lotus, it was rendered as the
convenient power (fang pien li(h)) or convenience
(fang-pien(i)); it refers to Buddha's willingness to
accommodate or compromise.

It should be noted that skill in-means has its
origin in the Theravaada scriptures. In the Samyutta
Nikaaya [Group discourse], Buddha assumes that truth
should be taught on different levels to individuals
of different up-bringings.(6) In the Mahavastu
[Great story], 'Saakyamuni, prior to his
enlightenment, is depicted as a bodhisattva who
undergoes ten stages (bhuumis) of births for the
cultivation of moral and spiritual perfections.(7)
Here the motif of skill-in-means is implied. As for
the Mahaayaanists, the doctrine of the ten stages of
the bodhisattva career is first presented in the
Suutras of the Perfect Wisdom.(8)

In this section, we shall deal with three
meanings of skill-in-means: (1) as power of the
Supreme Buddha, (2) as provisional truth learned by
the believers, and (3) as power acquired by the
celestial bodhisattvas. Meanings (1) and (2) are
fully discussed in the Lotus, and meaning (3) is
first expressed in the Suutras of the Perfect Wisdom
and later elaborated in the Suutra of the Ten Stages
(Da'sabhuumikas).

Skill-in-means as Power of the Supreme Buddha. When
skill-in-means is applied to the Supreme Buddha
('Saakyamuni as the metaphysical being), it denotes
his power to produce innumerable devices for the
salvation of sentient beings; and behind this power
there lies Buddha's infinite wisdom and compassion.
In the Lotus this power is chiefly explained in
terms of similes or parables. The simile of the rain
cloud in chapter 5 best illustrates the cosmic
meaning of this power. Here the Dharma (Wisdom) is
compared to the rainfall and creatures are compared
to various plants--grass, shrubs, thickets, small
trees, and big trees.(9) The purpose of this parable
is to show that although the Dharma is the same,
each creature receives it differently relative to
its endowment, interest, and environment. An eminent
Chinese monk of the seventh century said, "Buddha
expresses his Truth by means of one sound, but
individuals interpret it differently each in
accordance with his own nature."(10)

The rain-cloud parable, however, does not
illustrate an important aspect of the
skill-in-means, that is, Buddha's deliberate
"scheming" in order to induce the individuals to
salvation. But there are other similes which
illustrate this point. In the parable of the burning
house (chapter 3), the father resorts to promising
his children toy carts in order to get them out of
the house (world of sense-desires). In the parable
of the estranged son (chapter 4) , the father
purposely conceals himself from the son so that his
son may learn hardships before he can be accepted
into the household (Wisdom of Buddha). But an
incredible example of "scheming" is the parable of
the physician-father (Kern, chapter 15; Kumaarajiiva,
chapter 16) . Here the father deliberately makes
himself known as being dead so that his unmindful and
sick children may be moved to take medicines (Buddhist
teaching).

415

The "death" of the physical father actually
refers to the nirvaa.na 'Saakyamuni, which took
place some five hundred years ago before the Lotus
was first composed. But according to the Lotus, the
nirvaa.na of 'Saakyamuni is only a device; he as the
Supreme Buddha was actually enlightened in the
infinite past. The Buddha explains: "The Tathaagata,
who was so long ago enlightened, is of unlimited
length of life, and has always existed. Without
having attained Nirvaa.na he makes a show of
attaining Nirvaa.na for the sake of those who have
to be trained.... Now again, though not attaining
Nirvaa.na, I announce my attaining of
Nirvaa.na."(11) Then he proceeds to explain that if
he were around the world indefinitely, believers
would not take him seriously and would become
careless. Hence he made a "show" of entering into
nirvaa.na so that they might become earnest in their
quest for enlightenment. It may be said that the
nirvaa.na of 'Saakyamuni in the Lotus is a prototype
of skill-in-means.

One may wonder why Buddha has to resort to
"deceit" in order to bring individuals to the path
of enlightenment. The Lotus also raises the same
question: Does Buddha teach falsehood? Buddha's
answer is no. He says that he does so for the
purpose of educating the individuals. But this is
really not an answer because the end does not change
the nature of the means. I would suggest that the
question of the falsehood of the skill-in-means can
be approached in two ways.

(1) According to the Praj~naa school, whose
philosophy the Lotus teaches, the Dharma as
emptiness transcends all individualities and
dualities. Hence for one who is enlightened, he
neither affirms nor denies the world. Buddha says:
"In the triple world, there is neither birth nor
death, neither decease nor rebirth; neither
sa.msaara nor Nirvaa.na; neither reality nor
unreality; neither such nor otherwise. The
Tathaagata does not view the triple world in the
same way as the triple world views itself."(l2) Here
Buddha is viewing the world from the point of view
of praj~naa. Now skill-in-means as devices of Buddha
to refers his specific acts in time and space. As
such, they belong to the world. Thus Buddha could
neither say that his skill-in-means is true nor that
it is false.
(2) Another answer to the falsehood of
skill-in-means is to approach this problem from the
Hindu metaphysical perspective that has influenced
such Mahaayaana suutras as the Lotus. As Kern has
reminded us, the term upaaya of upaayakau'salya in
Indian metaphysics can also mean maayaa which refers
to the world or the energy of nature.(13) Now from
the vantage of the Brahman (Absolute), maayaa means
illusion, that is to say, a thing claims to be more
or other than what it really is; hence it has a
certain "magical" appearance. In the Lotus, the role
of the Supreme Buddha as the creator of innumerable
devices for salvation is comparable to the role of
Brahman as the creator of maayaa. Thus, it is not
incorrect to say, though unacceptable to the Lotus,
that Buddha's skill-in-means is "false" in that,
from the point of view of the Absolute,
skill-in-means is simply another aspect of maayaa.
At this point we might mention that the parable in
chapter 7 of the Lotus, in which Buddha compares his
skill-in-means to a magic city

416

which he has created, may suggest a real connection
between upaayakau'salya and maayaa.

In the Lotus, there is no way we can reconcile
the skill-in-means from the point of view of
praj~naa philosophy, which says that it is neither
true nor false, with the skill-in-means from the
point of view of Hindu metaphysics, which says that
it is maayaa. Since the philosophical and the magic
meanings are both present in this doctrine, both
should be recognized.

Skill-in-means as Provisional Truth. So far we have
explained the cosmic side of the skill-in-means. Now
we shall discuss the human side of it, namely, the
appropriation of this power as instruction.
Skill-in-means in this sense refers to provisional
truth.

In the Lotus, provisional truth is primarily
explained in terms of the doctrine of the three
vehicles (yanas or careers) : the vehicles of
disciples ('sraavakas) , solitary buddhas
(pratyeka-buddhas) and bodhisattvas. Disciples
refers to the Theravaadins and Buddhists of the
non-Mahaayaana sects; solitary buddhas to certain
non-Buddhist ascetics who have attained nirvaa.na
privately without the aid of a buddha;(14) and
bodhisattvas to those who have undertaken the
bodhisattva career by practicing the six or ten
perfections (paaramitaas) , in order to attain
buddhahood.(15) According to the Lotus, the
teachings and practices of these three groups are
viewed only as vehicles of the Dharma; they are
Buddha's devices for approximating knowledge about
the Dharma but are not to be identified with the
Dharma.

The doctrine of shill-in-means enables the
Mahaayaanists to justify that all these three
teachings are provisional truths even though the
Lotus holds that the Mahaayaana (bodhisattva
vehicle) is superior to the other two. This doctrine
also carries the implications that Buddhism may
recognize some non-Buddhist teachings as preparatory
truths also.

At this point some clarifications should be made
regarding the word vehicle in the Lotus and this
applies to both the translations of Kumaarajiiva and
Kern. In addition to the expression "three
vehicles," the Lotus also uses the terms "One
vehicle" and "Great vehicle." It should be
emphasized that, whereas the three vehicles are
skill-in-means, the One vehicle or the Great vehicle
refers to Buddha, Dharma, or Praj~naa. The
bodhisattva vehicle (Mahaayaana), being one of the
three teachings, is not the same as the One vehicle
or the Great vehicle. But the reader may confuse the
Great vehicle with the Mahaayaana, thus identifying
the Great vehicle with the Mahaayaana, thus
identifying the Great vehicle with the bodhisattva
vehicle. It is unfortunate that the Lotus uses the
term Great vehicle in reference to the Dharma.
Strictly speaking Dharma as Perfect Wisdom is not a
vehicle.

With this clarification in mind, we should have
no difficulty in distinguishing the One--or
Great--vehicle from the bodhisattva vehicle. This
distinction is best

417

illustrated in the parable of the burning house
(chapter 3).(16) It is said that an old house was on
fire, but the children, immersed in play inside,
were unaware of the imminent danger and refused to
get out when urged by their father. In great
distress, the father resorted to a device: he
announced that each of the children would receive a
toy cart of his choice as a present from among three
kinds of carts --goat, deer and bullock--if they
would leave the house immediately. Upon hearing this
news, all the children rushed out and were safe
outside. In great relief, the father gave each of
his children "a great cart beautifully adorned and
yoked with white bullock." It should be noted that
once the children were delivered from danger, they
were not given the three kinds of cart, which refer
to the teachings of the disciples, solitary buddhas,
and bodhisattvas, but were given the same "great
carts of the white bullocks.' After stating that he
was not guilty of deception, Buddha explains the
above parable as follows: "He [Buddha] first taught
the three vehicles in order to safeguard the
multiple creatures; but he later delivered them
through the Great vehicle. Why so? Because although
the Tathaagata....is capable of bestowing the Great
vehicle to all creatures, many of them are unable to
understand it on account of their low karmic
conditions. Therefore, the Buddha resorts to
skill-in-means so that the One vehicle is explained
in three ways."(17) It is certain the that same
"great carts of the white bullocks" that were given
to the children in the parable refer to the Great
vehicle, namely, the Dharma. The reason the white
bullocks symbolize the Great vehicle is because
white is the basis of all colors just like the One
vehicle is the basis of the three vehicles.(18)

The Lotus makes a clear distinction between
provisional truth and nirvaa.na. The distance
between them may be infinitely short or long,
depending on how the believer grasps the wisdom of
Buddha. It is the intent of the Lotus to emphasize
this distinction, by way of metaphorical
exaggeration, but it is not its intent to offer a
solution to the problem of how one may move from
provisional truth to the Dharma. In section two of
this article we shall see that it is the intent of
the Buddhism of Tao-sheng to show that there is a
way one may move from provisional truth to the
Dharma.

Skill-in-means as Power of the Celestial
Bodhisattvas. The phenomenon of the celestial
bodhisattvas is a unique creation of Mahaayaana.
Such well-known disciples of 'Saakyamuni, as
'Saariputra, AAnanda, Manju'sri, as well as hundreds
of mythological beings, have become celestial
bodhisattvas in the Mahaayaana suutras, and the
Lotus exemplifies this phenomenon. These beings
carry on their bodhisattva careers unceasingly
through numerous cycles of rebirths for the
salvation of others.

The suutra which deals with the bodhisattva
career most extensively is the Sutra of Ten Stages,
first translated in the fourth century A.D. and
later translated by Kumaarajiiva in the early fifth
century.(19) In it the bodhisattva career is viewed
as a progressive journey through the ten stages. The
first six stages are comparable

418

to the six perfections in that each stage is
dominated by a corresponding perfection.(20) In the
sixth stage, the bodhisattva attains perfect wisdom
which refers to the understanding of the emptiness
of all things. He could now attain nirvaa.na but his
compassion prevents him from doing so; thus he
postpones his entering into it. In the seventh
stage, called "going far," he acquires the power of
skill-in-means which enables him, like the Buddha,
to conjure up devices for his ministry. At this
point his career exemplifies the paradox of a
bodhisattva: skill-in-means implies that he
recognizes individuals and is immensely concerned
with their well-being, but wisdom implies that he
views these individuals and himself as being empty.

When the bodhisattva enters the eighth and ninth
stages, he becomes celestial; he now possesses a
dharrmic body which is nonphysical and is able to
transform himself into fictitious bodies that appear
in different regions to rescue the beings in
distress.(21) When the bodhisattva enters the tenth
stage, he becomes a buddha.

According to Conze, skill-in-means as power of
the bodhisattva is an answer to the problem of
perfect wisdom attained in the sixth stage.(22) The
Mahaayaanists did not believe that a bodhisattva
should merely be contented with dwelling in
emptiness and become completely detached from the
world. Hence they resorted to the doctrine of
skill-in-means which teaches that a bodhisattva
should return to the world and become involved in
it. The importance of making efforts is required
here. This explains why skill-in-means is esteemed
as an even more advanced power than wisdom in the
scheme of the ten stages.

The last stages were added later in order to
popularize the doctrine of celestial bodhisattvas in
Mahaayaana, which had gained large support from the
ordinary believers.

It can be seen that the skill-in-means, as
acquired by the celestial bodhisattva, has a strong
magic import. He attains in the sixth stage, but he
is not enlightened in actuality until the tenth
stage; and between them his magic power sways. Why
should there be a distinction between wisdom and
buddhahood? Why should there be an emphasis upon
the esoteric power of the bodhisattva? Why should
the attainment of nirrvaa.na require such
insurmountable efforts? Such questions have
perturbed Tao-sheng. His doctrine of sudden
enlightenment is an indirect answer to these
questions.

II. TAO-SHENG'S REACTION TO THE SKILL-IN-MEANS
BUDDHA-NATURE OF MAN

Tao-sheng's doctrine of sudden enlightenment is
essentially predicated upon his understanding of the
Buddha-nature of man.(23) Hence in order to
understand his Buddhism we must start with it. The
formation of the idea of Buddha-nature was a gradual
process in his life; it was constructed only after
he had passed his fiftieth birthday. Here we shall
trace the earlier stages of his intellectual
development in order to place this doctrine in a
historical perspective.

419

1. Praj~naa as li.(j) Earlier, we mentioned
Tao-sheng's close association with the Praj~naa
school. As a young novice, he studied under a
praj~naa master. When he was a scholar-monk, the
happy marriage between the Praj~naa school and
Neo-Taoism was already firmly established.

The Buddho-Taoists in those days equated
praj~naa (chih-hui(k) ) with li, both being
ontological concepts. In Neo-Taoism, li refers to
nonbeing or "nothing" (wu); it has no phenomenal
characteristics or quality of duality. It is
described as being "naturally so" or spontaneity
(tzu-jan(l), Waley translated it as the Alwaysso),
referring to an ontological state where duality or
opposites are united into the Undifferentiated.(24)
Thus li is indivisible. In the same way, the
praj~naa in the Suutras of the Perfect Wisdom refers
to emptiness which has no opposites or
characteristics (lak.sa.nas). Thus the translation
of praj~naa as li, in those days, was a logical
match.

However, li as praj~naa carries a connotation
which, for the Chinese, is not present in the
Suutras of the Perfect Wisdom. The praj~naa refers
to the wisdom of Buddha; but man does not have this
wisdom and it has to be acquired through stages of
study and cultivation. In contrast, the Neo-Taoist
term li has the connotation of being the "original
nature" (hsing(m)) of all phenomenal entities, and
li as such can also mean the original nature of man.
Thus, for instance, when the great Tao-an spoke of
praj~naa as having the nature (hsing or li) of
emptiness,(25) the word nature inevitably carries an
anthropological connotation. When Tao-sheng was
musing over the identity of praj~naa with li, a
thought must have come to him that the wisdom of
Buddha is also the human nature in its origin (li as
the original substance, pen-t'i(n) , as the
neo-Taoists would say) . Indeed, some of his
statements appear to point to this direction. For
instance, he said that the Buddhist sage must
exhaust the li in order to fulfill his nature
(ch'iung-li chin-hsing(o)).(26) Also, "When one sees
his own nature, he attains the Buddhahood"
(chien-hsing ch'eng-fo(p)).(27)

2. The wisdom of Buddha in the Lotus. In part
one we mentioned that Tao-sheng was a student of
Kumaarajiiva for three years while the latter was
staying in Ch'ang-an(q). At that time there was
apparently an inner circle centered around the
general imperial guest and discussion took place
regularly. One student, a companion of Tao-sheng,
asked Kumaarajiiva whether the Lotus teaches about
the Buddha-nature of man.(28) The master's answer
was that the Lotus teaches primarily about how one
might see the wisdom of Buddha (fo-chih(r)), which
may also be understood as the Buddha-nature of man.
Although, said Kumaarajiiva, he would not say that
the doctrine of Buddha-nature is mentioned in the
Lotus, neither would he say that it is not in the
Lotus.

Assuming the authenticity of this account, we
can surmise that the doctrine of Buddha-nature was a
lively issue of discussion at the Ch'ang-an sangha
when Kumaarajiva was there. According to him, this
doctrine is but a logical sequence of the praj~naa.
When Tao-sheng left Ch'ang-an in 409 and went to the
south for the

420

remainder of his career, the philosophical ground of
this doctrine must have been laid by him.

3. The Nirvaana Suutra.(29) When the Nirvaa.na
Suutra was translated in 418 in Nanking(s) ,
Tao-sheng was living in that city. Since the
translation of this work was a major event at the
Nanking sangha (250 Buddhists witnessed it),(30) it
can be assumed that its basic teaching, namely, the
Buddha-nature of man, was known to Tao-sheng before
the translation was completed. Now Tao-sheng had a
scriptural basis for a doctrine long conceived by
him. The Nirvaa.na Suutra teaches that the
Thusness-nature (Tathaagata-garbha or
yu-lai-hsing(t)) is the Buddha-nature of man and
this nature is man's true self (bhuutaatman or
chen-wo(u)).(31) The suutra says, "True-self is the
Tathaagata-garbha. All sentient beings possess
it.... Because this Self is covered by immeasurable
passions, it cannot be seen by the sentient
beings."(32) This Buddha-nature for Tao-sheng is no
other than li; "garbha is li, which is eternal
bliss, is hidden and has not yet come to light."(33)

Tao-sheng's interpretation of the Buddha-nature
was strongly influenced by the Praj~naa school.
Emptiness as truth or reality transcends duality or
opposites in existence and thought; it has no
individuality. Any definition of Buddha-nature must
be transcended since a definition implies an
individuality. Likewise, when this ontological
nature is equated with the original nature of man,
namely, the true self, the same praj~naa logic must
be applied. Hence this true self is not the
phenomenal self nor the negation of the self ("no
self"); for emptiness must transcend one-sidedness.
Also, the true self does not mean the soul
(shen-wo(v)) which, according to Tao-sheng, refers
to the spiritual component that enters into rebirth.
But emptiness, being without a quality, is not a
spiritual component.

Sudden Enlightenment. Although we do not know when
Tao-sheng began to teach the doctrine of sudden
enlightenment,(34) it must have followed his view of
Buddhanature(35).

Tao-sheng distinguished two kinds of Buddhist
knowledge: one is "understanding through seeing"
(chien-chieh(w)) and the other is "understanding
through hearing" (wen-chieh(x)).(36) "Understanding
through seeing" means the realization of one's
Buddha-nature. Since the Buddha-nature is man's
original nature and the actualization of which
lies entirely within his potentiality, no pursuit of
external knowledge alone can lead directly toward
the realization of this nature. And since the
Buddha-nature is indivisible, and pertains to
emptiness, it cannot be realized in stages; one
either realizes it instantaneously or does not
realize it at all.

The second kind of Buddhist knowledge,
"understanding through hearing," referring to the
study of Buddhist scriptures and philosophy, means
learning through instruction (chiao(y) ) . This
involves the accumulation of knowledge "external to
the self."(37) Since the learning of this kind of
knowledge depends upon outside sources, the approach
to it is through "faith" (hsing(z) ) , namely,
believing in the written words. The pursuit of such
knowledge, according to Tao-sheng, is an

421

endless process, for it will never necessarily lead
to enlightenment. Tao-sheng called such knowledge
provisional truth (ch'uan-chiao(aa)), (38) meaning
that it is tentative and preparatory; it helps the
believers to know about praj~naa by degrees. But the
attainment of praj~naa demands another approach.

Tao-sheng considered the provisional truth
(understanding through hearing) as
skill-in-means,(39) as taught in the Lotus. And the
doctrine of the three vehicles of the Lotus for him
is simply a hermeneutic device in Chinese Buddhism
whereby all Buddhist scriptures and doctrines are
viewed as provisional truth.

Tao-sheng felt that there should be a difference
in approach between enlightenment (understanding
through seeing) and skill-in-means (understanding
through hearing). Enlightenment is an instantaneous
realization apart from the written words, (40)
whereas skill-in-means involves a cumulative process
of learning. There is also a difference in effect in
these two approaches. The effect of sudden
enlightenment is the "extinction of one's ties with
the world" (mieh-lei(ab) ).(41) "When the total
enlightenment comes, all the myriad impediments are
equally brought to an end."(42) In this state,
"external things and self are equally forgotten, and
being and nonbeing are viewed in one and the same
way."(43) On the other hand, the effect of
skill-in-means can only aid the believer to "subdue
his ties with the world" (fu-lei(ac)),(44) which
means that although his ties with the world may
gradually be diminished, it is impossible to
extinguish these ties completely. As long as the
believer relies on skill-in-means, "others and self
are still differently felt, and non-being and being
are still perceived."(45)

The doctrine of sudden enlightenment was in fact
first taught by Chih-tun(ad) (314-366), who preceded
Tao-sheng by half a century. Chih-tun was specially
known for his equation of praj~naa with li,(46)
which was the substance of his argument for the
doctrine of sudden enlightenment. But Chih-tun
explained this doctrine in the context of the ten
stages of the bodhisattva career as presented in the
Suutras of the Perfect Wisdom, according to which
the bodhisattva attains wisdom in the seventh stage
(in the Suutra of the Ten Stages wisdom is attained
in the sixth stage).(47) In the previous six stages,
the bodhisattva cultivates morality and accumulates
knowledge gradually, but in the seventh stage he
reaches enlightenment instantaneously. However,
although he has attained enlightenment in the
seventh stage, he does not realize buddhahood until
he enters the tenth stage.

According to Tao-sheng, the doctrine of sudden
enlightenment as explained by Chih-tun has two
inconsistencies: (1) the bodhisattva reaches
enlightenment in the seventh stage but realizes
boddhahood in the tenth stage, thus enlightenment
and buddhahood are viewed as two separate
entities.(48) For Tao-sheng, enlightenment and
buddhahood are identical. (2) Since the bodhisattva
still has three more stages of progress after the
attainment of enlightenment, his "enlightenment"
cannot be viewed as instantaneous and complete.
Indeed, it implies that there is further room for
illumination. Hence Chih-tun's sudden enlightenment
is but a teaching of gradualism.(49)

422

As Tao-sheng saw it, the real problem which
confronts Chih-tun is that he explained sudden
enlightenment in the context of the ten stages,
which is an expression of gradualism
(skill-in-means) .(50) Thus to explain sudden
enlightenment in this context is to make it an
outcome of gradual growth.

It can be said, in view of our discussion in
this section, that the Buddhism of Tao-sheng
actually follows closely the two principal doctrines
of the Lotus: praj~naa and skill-in-means. The
difference lies in emphasis. Whereas the Lotus
teaches the doctrine of skill-in-means while
insisting upon the necessity of praj~naa, the
Buddhism of Tao-sheng emphasizes praj~naa while
giving a preliminary place for the doctrine of
skill-in-means. This difference is due to a
difference in intent: the Lotus' intent is basically
practical; it promotes the universality of
skill-in-means and considers the worship of
celestial bodhisattvas as a convenient path of
Buddhism. The intent of the Buddhism of Tao-sheng is
intellectual; it aims at enlightenment as a
realization of the essence of Buddhism and this
essence is now identified with the original nature
of man.

Of the three meanings of skill-in-means
mentioned in part one, Tao-sheng only appropriated
skill-in-means as provisional truth. But even as
provisional truth, skill-in-means in his Buddhism
does not play as important a role as it does in the
Lotus because of his emphasis upon the Buddha-nature
of man. As to the other two meanings of the
skill-in-means: power of the Supreme Buddha and
power of the celestial bodhisattvas, Tao-sheng was
silent. It should be noted that both these two
meanings convey an esoteric quality. In the Lotus
the Supreme Buddha can produce an infinite variety
of devices, and in the Suutra of the Ten Stages the
celestial bodhisattva in the seventh stage obtains
this magic power. Because Tao-sheng taught that the
Buddha of the Pure Land does not really possess a
land (from the point of view of the Praj~naa school,
Buddha cannot be identified with a particular
realm),(51) we may be certain that the magic aspect
of Buddhism holds only a peripheral place in his
Buddhism.

REACTION TO THE INDIAN SCRIPTURES

Tao-sheng's attitude toward the Indian
scriptures may also be a factor which reduced the
importance of the doctrine of skill-in-means in his
Buddhism. In his day, the Chinese sangha was still
facing the overwhelming task of translation. He felt
that many of the translators "have been blocked by
holding [too narrowly] to the text, with the result
that they seldom have been able to see the complete
meaning."(52) He seemed to think that the
translators had emphasized the law rather than the
spirit of the letters. He stated his own attitude
toward the Indian scriptures as follows: "Rely upon
the scriptural passages that have been understood,
not upon those that have not been understood; rely
upon meaning, but not upon the words of the
scriptures; and rely upon wisdom, not
knowledge."(53)

Tao-sheng felt that there are many passages in
the Indian scriptures which are not comprehensible
to the Chinese, owing to the cultural and
metaphysical

423

differences between India and China. And what cannot
be comprehended should not be used. For example,
skill-in-means as the power of the Supreme Buddha
and skill-in-means as the magic power of the
celestial bodhisattva would fall under this
category. This may be the overriding reason why
Tao-sheng disagreed with Chih-tun's interpretation
of sudden enlightenment on the basis of the ten
stages of the Bodhisattva career. However
imaginative and interesting the doctrine of ten
stages may be, it was too esoteric to comprehend for
the Chinese.

III. CONCLUSION

Viewed from the historical perspective, Tao-sheng's
Buddhism was a voice crying in the wilderness in
fifth century China, because the sangha was too busy
with the domestication of Indian Buddhism to listen
to him. China was then immersed in

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d 宫籉 ab 防仓 az 疘簄竒栋秆
e 籉阶 ac ヱ仓 ba 蔼宫肚
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s 玭ㄊ aq 旅竒 bo 紌笷
t ㄓ┦ ar М猭浆地竒ト觅 bp グ
u 痷и as 亥称ち醇紈竒 bq 毒ね孽
v и at 竒 br 約グ栋
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︱毙

424

the task of deciphering the meaning of the Indian
scriptures which had arrived in abundance. Thus
scriptural and doctrinal study, namely, provisional
truth, remained the primary task of the day. On the
other hand, Tao-sheng's Buddhism, which represents a
major attempt to make Buddhism more indigenous and
less foreign, showed the sangha the future direction
toward which Chinese Buddhism should move. It took
the sangha two more centuries before it was ready to
absorb Tao-sheng's ideas on a nation-wide basis. It
was Ch'an(ae) (Zen) Buddhism that took over the
germinal ideas of Tao-sheng and turned them into a
genuine Chinese expression.(54) But Ch'an Buddhism
did not blossom until the passing of Buddhist
scholasticism under the aegis of the T'ien-t'ai(af)
and Hua-yen(ag) schools.

NOTES

1. The exact language of the original Lotus is
uncertain. According to Wing-tsit Chan(ah), it might
have been written in a local dialect and later put
into Sanskrit. See his "The Lotus Suutra, " in
Approach to Oriental Classics, William Theodore de
Bary, ed. (New York: Columbia University Press,
1964), p. 164. According to Kern, the primitive
portion of the Lotus (Kern, chaps. 1-20, 27;
Kumaarajiivaa, chaps. 1-22) contains materials as
old as any other ancient Buddhist scriptures, but
the Lotus in the present form was completed around
A.D. 250. See his The Lotus of the True Law (New
York: Dover Publications, 1963), pp. xx-xxii. Hajime
Nakamura dates the primitive part of the Lotus
around A.D. 40 and the completion of the Lotus near
the end of the second century. See his "A Critical
Survey of Mahaayaana and Esoteric Buddhism," in Acta
Asiatica 6 (1964): 83-84.

2. Today there are three extant Chinese versions
of the Lotus: (1) Cheng fa-hua-ching(ai) translated
by Dharmarak.sa in 286; (2) Kumaarajiiva's
translation entitled Miao-fa lien-hua ching(aj); and
(3) Tien-p'in miao-fa lien hua ching(ak) of 601.
Kumaarajiiva's translation was based upon a Kuchean
text more primitive than Dharmatak.sa's of 286. See:
Richard H. Robinson, Early Maadhyamika in India and
China (Madison, Wisc.: University of Wisconsin
Press, 1967), p. 75. Kumaarajiiva's Lotus has been
translated in part by W. E. Soothill entitled The
Lotus of the Wonderful Law (Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1930). The other two European translations
based upon later Sanskrit versions are: La Lotus de
la Bonne Loi (1852) by E. Burnouf, and The Lotus of
the True Law (1884) by H. Kern, which was based upon
a text of 1039.

The quotes in this article are my translations
unless otherwise indicated.

3. For the influence of the Praj~naa school in
China of this period, see: Erik Zucher, The Buddhist
Conquest of China (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1959), 1,
pp. 116-130, 190-193.

4. The Praj~naaparamitaa Suutras were known to
the Chinese before A.D. 300. The A.s.tasaahariskaa
[Perfection of wisdom in 8, 000 lines], called
Tao-hsing ching(al), was translated between 164 and
186. The Pa~ncavim'satika [Perfection of wisdom in
25, 000 lines], called Kuang-tsan ching(am), was
translated in 286. A portion of the Pa~ncavim'satika
was also translated under the title of Fang-kuang
ching(an) around 300.

4. For a study of Praj~naa school and
Neo-Taoism, see: Arthur Link, "The Taoist
Antecedents of Tao-an's Praj~naa Ontology, " in
History of Religions 9, nos. 2-3 (Nov. 1969-Feb.
1970): 181-215.

5. H. Kern, op. cit., p. 30, note 1.

6. Eward Conze, ed., Buddhist Texts Through the
Ages (New York: Harper & Row, 1964), pp. 33-41.

7. Eward Conze, Thirty Years of Buddhist Studies
(Columbia, S. C.: University of South Carolina
Press, 1968), p. 136; hereafter cited as Buddhist
Studies.

8. Buddhist Studies, pp. 133-134.

9. This parable is in chapter 5 of the Lotus. A
complete translation of this chapter also appears in
Conze's Buddhist Studies, pp. 105-122. For
Kumaarajiiva's Lotus, I have used the Chi-sha
tsang(ao) (A.D. 1232-1322) of the Chinese Tripitaka
now reproduced in 1963-1972 by the China Ta-tsang
Ching Reproduction Association, Taipei, Taiwan,
under the title Chung-hua ta-tsang ching(ap) ;
hereafter

425

cited as the Ta-tsang ching(aq). The Lotus is in
series 1, part 1, vol. 17. The Lotus is also in vol.
9 of the Chinese Tripitaka of the Taisho Daizokyo
(1922-1933) edition, 85 volumes, in Tokyo, Japan:
Taisho Issaikyo kankokai.

10. His name is K'uei-chi (632-682). The quote
is from his Miao-fa lien-hua ching hsuan-tsan(ar) in
the Ta-tsang ching, series 1, part 1, vol. 77, p.
33469.

11. Edward J. Thomas, The History of Buddhist
Thought (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1951), p.
184.

12. To tsang ching, series 1, 17, p. 7073;
translation is based on Soothill, The Lotus of the
Wonderful Law, p. 202. The triple world refers to
the world of sense-desire, world of form, and the
formless world.

13. H. Kern, op. cit., p. 30, note 1 and p. 307,
note 1.

14. According to Hajime Nakamura, the
Pratyekabuddhas can be traced to a Jainist origin.
See his "A Critical Survey of Mahaayaana and
Esoteric Buddhism," in Acta Asiatica 6 (1964):85.

15. The ten perfections of a bodhisattva are:
(1) generality, (2) morality, (3) patience, (4)
vigor, (5) concentration, (6) wisdom, (7)
skill-in-means, (8) vow--determination to adhere to
the highest vow to be a Buddha, (9) power--being
able to change his form and to teach beings
according to their dispositions, (10) supreme
knowledgecomprehension of the ultimate nature of
things. The first six perfections were actually
introduced by the Sarvaastivaadins, a Theravaada
related sect. See: Richard H. Robinson, The Buddhist
Tradition (Belmont, California: Dickenson Publishing
Co., 1970), pp. 39, 58. Later on the Mahaayaanists
because of their growing interest in the activities
of the celestial bodhisattvas added four more
perfections to complete the list. See, Edward Conze,
Buddhist Thought in India (London: George Allen and
Unwin, 1962), p. 211.

16. Ts-tsang ching, series 1, part 1, vol. 17,
pp. 7044-7045; Soothill, The Lotus of the Wonderful
Law, pp. 86-89.

17. Ta-tsang ching, series 1, part 1, vol. 17,
p. 7044.

18. This explanation was made by K'uei-chi in
his Miao-fa lien-hua ching hsuan-tsan, Taitsang
ching, series 1, part 1, vol. 77, p. 33447.

19. The Suutra of the Ten Stages [Da'sabhumika]
was first translated by Dharmarak.sa between 265 and
316 under the title of Chien-pei i-ch'ieh chi-te
ching(as), later translated by Kumaarajiiva between
408 and 412 under the title of Shih-chu ching(at).
The ten stages of the bodhisattva career are: (1)
joyous, (2) pure, (3) light-giving, (4) radiant, (5)
hard to conquer, (6) face-to-face, (7) far-going,
(8) immovable, (9) of good thought, (10) cloud of
Dharma. In the seventh stage, the bodhisattva also
attains the ten perfections (paaramitaas) , the
seventh of which is the skill-in-means. The Suutra
of the Ten Stages is in the Ta-tsang ching, series
1, part 1, vol. 15, pp. 6415-6457. For an
explanation of the ten stages, see: Thomas, The
History of Buddhist Thought, pp. 206-210.

20. Buddhist Studies, p. 235.

21. Conze, Buddhist Thought in India, pp.
236-237.

22. Buddhist Studies, pp. 139-140.

23. For the life and thought of Tao-sheng, see:
W. Liebenthal, "A Biography of Chu Tao-sheng," in
Monumenta Nipponica 11, no. 3 (1955):64-96; T'ang
Yung-t'ung(au), Han Wei liang-chin nan-pei-ch'ao
fo-chiao-shih(av) [History of Chinese Buddhism from
206 B.C. to A.D. 589] (Peking: Hsin-hua Press,
1955), pp. 601-670; hereafter cited as History.
Tao-sheng's Miao-fa lien-hua ching su(aw)
[Commentary on the Lotus] appears in the Japanese
edition of Hsu tsang ching(ax) [Tripitaka
supplement] Kyoto, Japan: Nihon Zokuzokai,
1923-1925, series 1, part 2, vol. 150, pp. 396-412.
His two commentaries appear in the following works:
Chu Wei-mo-chieh ching(ay) [Collective commentaries
on the Vimalakiirtinirde'sa Suutra] in the Taisho
Daizokyo, chuan 10; Nieh-p'an ching chi-chieh(az)
[Collective commentaries on the Nirvaa.na Suutra] in
the Taisho Daizokyo, chuan 72. His thought can also
be gleaned from his biography in the Kao-seng
chuan(ba) [Biographies of eminent monks] by
Hui-chiao(bb) in the Ta-tsang ching, series 1, part
1, vol. 60, p. 26356.

24. Wang Pi(bc) (A.D. 226-249) , a leading
Neo-Taoist, gave these ideas a permanent place in
Chinese thought. But the Neo-Taoist ontological
meaning of li appears to be initiated by Kuo
Hsiang(bd) in his Commentary on the Chuang-tzu.

25. History, p. 246.

26. This remark is actually an allusion to a
passage in the I-ching(be): "The sage in order to
attain

426

li must realize his human nature, thus fulfilling
his destiny" (Ch'iung-li chin-hsing i-chih-yu
ming(bf). See: W. Liebenthal, "The World Conception
of Chu Tao-sheng," in Monumenta Nipponica 12, nos.
1-2 (1956) : 66; "The World Conception of Chu
Tao-sheng: Texts, " in ibid., 12, nos. 3-4
(1956):74-76.

27. History, pp. 631, 668-669.

28. This is a quote from Yu-i
lun(bg)[Clarification of doubt] by Hui-jui(bh), a
companion of Tao-sheng and a student of Kumaarajiiva.
See, History, pp. 632-633.

29. The first translation of the Nirvaa.na
Suutra, the six-chuan version, based upon an
incomplete text, was made by Fa-hsien(bi) and
Buddhabhadra in 418. The second translation was
based upon a complete version of the forty chuan by
Dharmakshema in 421, being the standard version.
There is also a third version, a reduction of the
first and second translations, jointly made by Hsieh
Ling-yun(bj), Hui-yen(bk), and Hui-kuan(bl) in 430.
The Nirvaa.na Suutra is a Mahaayaana text to be
distinguished from the Mahaaparinibbhanasutta, a
Hiinayaana text. See: Kenneth Ch'en, Buddhism in
China (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press,
1964), pp. 113-114.

30. History, p. 616.

31. Liebenthal, "The World Conception of Chu
Tao-sheng," pp. 92-93.

32. This quote is from the first translation of
the Nirvaa.na Sutra, Ta-tsang ching, series 1, part
1, vol. 16, p. 6832.

33. Liebenthal, "The World Conception of Chu
Tao-sheng: Texts," p. 85.

34. I am grateful to the reader who advised me
to consult the Thera-Therii-gaathaa, a Paali
scripture, in which ideas of sudden enlightenment
might be found. See, Psalms of the Early Buddhists,
part 1, Psalms of the Sisters, part 2, and Psalms of
the Brethren, C. A. F. Rhys Davids, trans. (London:
Luzac & Co., 1909-1913). The reader has suggested
seven references in this work and out of which I
have endorsed four as being related to sudden
enlightenment. These are: vs. 42-44 (Uttamaa
Therii) ; 112-116 (Pataacaaraa Therii) ; 267-270
(Naagasamaada Thera); 405-410 (Sappadaasa Thera).
The other three references are: vs. 39-41 (Saamaa
Therii); 48-50 (Dantikaa Therii); 67-71 (Anonymous
Therii). These first four references seem to show a
common phenomenon: after a long period of spiritual
struggle the disciple, in witnessing some external
happening, suddenly experienced a flash of insight;
henceforth he or she lived in peace. As can be seen,
this sort of experience reminds one of many
incidents told in the koan literature of Ch'an
Buddhism. Although we are prepared to say that some
evidences of sudden enlightenment can be found in
the Thera-Therii-gaathaa, these evidences are
expressed in poetic anecdotes. Sudden enlightenment
as a philosophical tradition still awaited the
maturity of the sangha in China.

35. We do not have direct sources from Tao-sheng
regarding his doctrine of sudden enlightenment. For
this doctrine, we depend chiefly upon two sources:
Pien-tsung lun(bm) [Discussion of essentials] by
Hsieh Ling-yun (385-433) , a close friend and
expositor of Tao-sheng; Chao-lun su(bn) [Commentary
on the treatises of Seng-chao] by Hui-ta(bo)
(557-589). Both authors attributed their meanings of
sudden enlightenment to Tao-sheng. See, notes 35,
40, herein.

36. This distinction appears in the Chao-lun su.
See, History, pp. 658-659; Liebenthal, "The World
Conception of Chu Tao-sheng: Texts," pp. 89-90.

37. Tao-sheng himself distinguished between
"truth" to be realized within and "knowledge" to be
discovered without in a letter to Wang Hung(bp)
(379-432). See: Fung Yu-lan(bq) and Derk Bodde.
History of Chinese Philosophy (Princeton, N.J.:
Princeton University Press, 1953), 2, pp. 281-282;
History, pp. 668-669.

38. History, pp. 644, 660-661.

39. Ibid.

40. This reference to enlightenment is derived
from the biography of Tao-sheng (see note 23,
herein) in which it is said that Tao-sheng "was
suddenly enlightened apart from the written words
after having contemplated upon the truth for a long
time." Thus his doctrine of enlightenment is based
upon his own experience. See, History, p. 616.

41. The distinction between "extinction of one's
ties with the world" and "subdual of one ties with
the world" is attributed to Tao-sheng by Hsieh
Ling-yun in the latter's Pien-tsung lun (see note
34, herein) in the Kuang hung-ming chi(br) [sequel
to the Buddhist studies], in the Ta-tsang ching,
series 1, 61, pp. 27022-27025. See, Fung and Bodde,
History of Chinese Philosophy, 2: 274-284; History,
pp. 663-668.

427

42. Fung and Bodde, History of Chinese
Philosophy, 2:278.

43. Ibid., pp. 280-281.

44. History, p. 666.

45. Fung and Bodde, History of Chinese
Philosophy, 2, p. 281.

46. Ch'en, op. cit., p. 66.

47. Buddhist Studies, p. 136.

48. History, p. 656.

49. K. Ch'en, op. cit., p. 119.

50. History, pp. 650-654.

51. Ibid., p. 643.

52. Fung and Bodde, History of Chinese
Philosophy, p. 270.

53. History, p. 629; K. Ch'en, op. cit., p. 116.

54. According to both T'ang Yung-t'ung and Hu
Shih(bs), Tao-sheng is the spiritual founder of
Ch'an (Zen) Buddhism. See, History, p. 663; Hu Shih,
"The Development of Zen Buddhism in China," in the
Anthology of Zen, W. Briggs, ed., (New York: 1961),
p. 13. But Liebenthal disagreed with both; he
believed that Tao-sheng's thought is closer to the
Buddho-Taoism than to Ch'an Buddhism. The reason why
Liebenthal said so is because he felt that Ch'an
Buddhism is anti-intellectual whereas the Buddhism
of Tao-sheng is intellectual. See: Liebenthal, "A
Biography of Chu Tao-sheng," p. 90.