The Lalitavistara and Sarvastivada

·期刊原文
The Lalitavistara and Sarvastivada

By Thomas, E. J.
Indian Historical Quarterly
16:2 1940.06 p. 239-245

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p. 239

The position of the Lalitavistara-sutra in its
relation to Pali Buddhism has been variously judged.
The work was described by Rhys Davids some fifty
years ago as, "a poem of unknown date and authorship,
but probably composed in Nepal, and by some Buddhist
poet who lived sometime between six hundred and a
thousand years after the birth of the Buddha."(1)
This illustrates the extraordinary misconceptions
then prevailing, as well as the attitude of the Pali
school, which sought to reconstruct the early history
of Buddhism from Pali sources alone. But the
Lalitavistara is not a poem, there is no probability
that it was composed in Nepal, and it contains
passages as old as anything in Pali.

It was against this attitude of the Pali scholars
that the late L. de La Vallee Poussin protested in
his Buddhisme, etudes et materiaux (pp. 2-4) where he
wrote:

"Pre-occupied in establishing the history of
Buddhism and in starting by fixing its origin, the
orientalists abandon the path so intelligently opened
up by Burnouf; they relinquish the examination of the
Northern sources, and take no account of them, they
attach themselves passionately to the exegesis
of the Southern Scriptures, which in appearance are
more archaic and better documented. The results that
these labours give us are of the highest importance,
both for the history of religions in general as well
as for that of Buddhist and Indian ideas. Oldenberg's
book is a perfect exposition: Pall Buddhism cannot be
better described, its intellectual and moral factors
more artistically demonstrated, or a more precise
exposition given of the idea that a Singhalese doctor
makes of his religion and his destiny. Oldenberg's
error was to entitle his book, Buddha, his life, his
doctrine and his community. He should have added,
`according to Pali sources and the principles of the
Singhalese Church."'

And he went on:

"Far front giving us the key to the origin of
Buddhism and the understanding of its historical
evolution, the examination of the canon and the Pali
------------------------
1. Hibbert Lectures, p. 197.

p. 240

chronicles gives us information about only one of the
sects of the Southern school. Futher, these accounts
have an absolute value only for an epoch relatively
late in the history of this Church. To describe the
fortunes of the community, the constitution of the
Sangha, the formation of the Scriptures, and the life
of the Master according to documents which date from
the first or the fourth century of our era is an
illusory undertaking. Consecrated by the faith and
piety of the schools, learnedly elaborated, proud of
a regularity (suspect, although exaggerated by
certain authors) , the Pali canon boasts of an
authenticity of little probability. Like the Buddhist
monks of naive piety and imperfect critical sense
European scholars have not hesitated to admit this
authenticity. It was only at a recent epoch taht the
books were fixed in writing; but does not India offer
us in the fastidious preservation of the Vedas a
marvellous example of memory and fidelity? This pious
hypothesis does not hold against the facts."

These incisive words of the industrious scholar
whose loss we are still deploring are not yet
obsolete. They still stand as a protest against the
idea that by excising the marvellous and the
contradictory in the accounts of the Pali school it
is possible to arrive at a sound historical basis. It
may be here remarked that the recent investigations
of Mrs. Rhys Davids have been equally destructive of
the theories of Oldenberg and T. W. Rhys Davids,
though without advancing on the lines suggested by La
Vallee Poussin.

Although this article is concerned with the
doctrinal relations of the Lalita-vistara with the
Sarvastivada school, it is necessary to say something
about the structure of the sutra. When the Sanskrit
text was first published (1877-8) it was found to
contain many verse passages embedded in the prose.
The question was raised as to which was the older,
the prose or the verse; but it ws a futile proceeding
to try and solve the problem by setting up rival
theories of the structure of the sutra without
looking for the sources of the verse passages. It can
now be seen that many come from the canon of the
Sarvastivadins. On the other hand, when we find a
passage in Sardulavikridita metre, it suggests a very
late period of literary activity. But there is now no
doubt that not only many of the verses but also many
of the prose passages are textually taken from the

p. 241

Sarvastivadin scriptures. That there was such a canon
was not even recognized when Childers declared, "the
North Buddhist books have no claim to originality,
but are partly adaptations of the Pali sacred books,
made several centuries after Gautama's time, and
partly late outgrowths of Buddhism exhibiting the
religion in an extraordinary state of corruption and
travesty."(2)

The real facts have been stated by La Vallee
Poussin. It should be almost self-evident that the
most widely-spread group of schools in India, the
Sarvastivadins, a group that continued to flourish
widely long after the Pali school had been cut off
from its Indian home, should have had a canon of its
own. Although not entirely identical with the Plai,
the structure of the Agamas and much of the wording
is the same. As La Vallee Poussin said, "We speak in
the singular of the canon. It is not doubtful that a
considerable body of scriptures served as basis for
the two canons of Sthavirian sects, the canon in the
Pali language and the Sanskrit canon of the
Sarvastivadins. This body of scriptures may be
referred to under the name of the Buddhist canon."
(3) It is from the Sarvastivadin source that the
ancient passages both prose and verse, in the
Lalita-vistara were take. How the whole sutra was
compiled will need more detailed investigation. Here
we have only to consider how the Mahayana compiler or
compilers of the Lalita-vistara dealt with the
doctrinal matters in the passages incorporated.

Althought the metaphysical doctrines of Mahayana
are not ignored, the whole interest is concentrated
on the nature of a Bodhisattva and his attinment of
Buddhahood, when he becomes an omniscient Tathagata.
The Boddhisattva-doctrine itself was not new, for all
the schools recognized it, as well as the doctrine of
a Tathagata with his ten powers. But while according
to the older doctrine the
---------------------
2. Childers' Dictonary, preface, p. xii.
3. Le dozme et la philosophie du Bouddhisme, p. 97.

p. 242

Bodhisattva in his last birth was a being who still
had to learn the painful facts of old age, sickness,
and death, in Mahayana he knew the essential
doctrines already and had acquired all the qualities
of a Buddha except those peculiar to a Tathagata. At
the very beginning of the actual sutra (ch. 2) we are
told how the Bodhisattva was dwelling in the
excellent abode of Tusita. Then follow over four pages
of epithets beginning thus:

"Adored by adorable ones, having obtained his
abhiseka, praised, lauded, and extolled by hundreds
of thousands of gods, having obtained the abbiseka
produced from his vow, having acquired the full and
purified buddha--knowledge due to all the
buddha-qualities, having won the highest perfection
of skill in means, knowing the brahma-states of great
friendliness, compassion, joy, and equanimity, having
reached the peak of fulfilment of all the bodhipaksikadharmas
consisting of the stations of mindfulness, the right
effort, the bases of psychic power, the faculties,
the powers, the parts of enlightenment, and the way,
having his body adorned with the marks and minor
marks due to the accumulation of unmeasured merit."
(Lal. p. 8).

Nor were these attainments lying dormant, for we
are told that while the Bodhisattva was in his
seraglio,

"He was not deprived of hearing the doctrine, or
deprived of meditating on the doctrine. Why was that:
It was because the Bodhisattva had long shown
reverence for the doctrines and reciters of the
doctrine, he was eagerly earnest for the doctrine,
delighting in the doctrine, unwearied in
investigating the doctrine, exceedingly liberal in
bestowing the doctrine, teaching it without reward,
ungrudging in the gift of the doctrine, not having
the closed fist of a teacher." (Lal. p. 215).

Yet the narrative retains the story as told in all
schools, and when the Bodhisattva acts like an
ordinary man of the world, it is repeatedly said that
this is due to lokanuvartanakriyadharmata, the rule
of acting in accordance with the practice of the
world. In the same way, when as an infant he was
being taken to the temple, he knew that It was
unnecessary as he was devatideva, but he consented to
go "in accordance with the custom of the world."

When in the older story he first learns the dark
facts of human life, he is distressed and returns to
his palace in agitation of heart.

p. 243

The Lalita-vistara retains the accounts of his asking
what an old man, a sick man and the others were, but
adds the words, jananncva, although he knew, for he
was not really an ignorant youth, but a Bodhisattva
already understanding the reality of existence, and
he asked in accordance with the dharmata, the rule of
action followed by all Bodhisattvas.

These are instances of direct modification of the
story, but the latter portion of the Sutra gives
example of a different way of expressing the special
teaching introduced into the narrative. The
traditional course of events remains unchanged. The
contest with Mara is recounted with the addition of
much mythological detail, then the attainment of the
four dhyanas, the divine eye, the remembrance of the
former births, the chain of causation and the
destruction of the asravas, all given in the words of
the older sutras. The events at the Bodhi tree
follow, the journey to Benares, and the first sermon.
Most of the essential narrative is given in the words
of the older texts and the Mahayana protions are
distinct insertions. These display what may be called
devotional Mahayana, for although sunyata and such
Mahayana doctrines are taken for granted, no attempt
is made to emphasise them or expound them. When the
Bodhisattva is going to the Bodhi tree Brahma
Sahampati informs the gods, and his speech consists
of a repetition of the Bodhisattva's achievements.

It might have been thought that after the recital
of the chain Of causation some explanation of the
formula in the style of Nagarjuna would have been
given, but what follows is chiefly a series of stutis
by various gods. In one of them Buddha replies, and
gives a verse account of his enlightenment, but the
nearest approach to any Mahayana metaphysics is where
he says he has attained by enlightenment the void of
the world (jagacchunyam), which arises from the chain
of causation, and which is like a mirage or a city of
Gandharvas. That the standpoint is Mahayana can be
seen from the

p. 244 use of certain terms, such as dharmatathata, bhutakoti, tathagatagarbha,

use of certain terms, such as dharmatathata,
bhutakoti, tathagatagarbha, and sunya. Even maya
occurs, but in the sense of "deceit, and it merely
illustrates the dependence on Sarvastivada, in this
case on the Abhidharma.(4) The terms occur along with
matasrya and irsya, and they also occur together in
the Sarvastivadin list of upaklesas, and here are
mentioned among the forest of vices (klesaranya)
which Buddha had cut off.

The additions to the first sermon are more
extensive, but still without any tendency to develop
the doctrine. It is followed by a versified version
of the chain of causation addressed to Kaundinya, the
first of the five disciples. Then Maitreya, one of
the Bodhisattvas present asks Buddha for the sake of
Bodhisattvas present to expound how the Wheel of the
Doctrine has been turned. But no exposition is given.
What follows is little more than a string of
epithets. Buddha replies;

"Profound, Maitreya, is the Wheel, for it cannot
be acquired by grasping: hard to perceive is the
Whell through the disappearance of duality...."
This list then passes into a description of the
Tathagata:

"Even so, Maitreya has the Wheel of the Doctrine
been turned by the Tathagata; through the turning of
which he is called Tathagata; he is called fully
enlightened Buddha; he is called Svayambhu; he is
called Dharmasvami; he is called Nayaka; he is called
Vinayaka; he is called Parinayaka; he is called
Sarthavaha.... "

This extraordinary list continues for over
fourteen pages, and this, Buddha tells Maitreya, is
the turning of the Wheel and a summary exposition of
the virtues of the TAthagata. If explained at length
the Tathagata might expound for a kalpa or the rest
of a kalpa. Of real explanation there is nothing,
although in a poem immediately following the turning
of the Wheel is said to be anutpadam. This is the
very word which forms the basis of the system of
Nagarjuna in his Madhyamakarikas. There can be little
-------------------------
4. Lal., p. 486. Maya is translated `esprit de deception'
by La Vallee Poussin in his translation of the
Abhidharmakosa. vol. I, bk. ii, $ 27. Cf. Mahavyutpatti,
104.

p. 245

doubt that this avoidance of points of difference and
metaphysical subjects of dispute is due to the fact
that the sutra is intended for lay people. The
compilers have aimed at harmonising the old accounts
with the more exalted conception of the Bodhisattva.
There is one place where a severe judgment is passed
on the holders of other views. In the account of the
Bodhisattva's passing from the Tusita heaven and
being conceived Ananda expresses his wonder, and
Buddha replies that in the future there will be some
who will disbelieve that the Bodhisattva passed
through the processes of conception and birth. But
those who reject the excellent sutra, whether monks
or lay people, will be hurled at death into the hell
of Avici. Faith is needed, and Buddha illustrates by a
parable:

"It is as if, Ananda, a certain man had a son,
and the man was of fair speech, received presents,
and had many friends. The son, when his father died,
was not left desolate, but was well received by his
father's friends. Even so, Ananda, any of those who
shall believe in me I receive as my friends -- those
who have taken refuge in me. The Tathagata has many
friends, and these friends of the Tathagata,
truth-speakers, not speakers of falsehood, I hand on.
They that are truth-speakers are friends of the
Tathagata, the Arhats and perfect Buddhas of the
future. Faith should be practised. Herein this is
what I make you to understand."

But the basis of the faith has been changed. The
sport, lalita, of the Bodhisattva is not merely his
sport in the seraglio, but all the acts which as
Bodhisattva he had to perform. His fight with Mara is
expressly said to be done in sport, and finally the
whole sutra is said to be played (vikridita) by the
great Bodhisattva.