The Lamp and the Wind in Tibetan Buddhism

·期刊原文
The Lamp and the Wind in Tibetan Buddhism
By Alex Wayman
Philosophy East and West
V. 5, No. 2 (July 1955)
pp. 149-154
Copyright 1955 by University of Hawaii Press
Hawaii, USA

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

p. 149

In view of the importance to Indian thought of the Bhagavad-giitaa -- the "Hindu Bible" -- and its growing popularity in the West, it should be of interest to observe that a simile in that work is known to many a Tibetan or Mongolian Buddhist. This is in verse VI. 19:

As a lamp in a windless place flickereth not, to such is likened the yogi of subdued thought who practices union with the Self (or discipline of himself). [1]

It is worth mentioning that the Buddha Diipankara -- a name meaning "who makes a lamp" -- was once the guardian deity of Buddhist merchants as "the calmer of the waves." [2] This twofold function seems related to the simile. It shows that a windless place is not enough; a lamp is indispensable.

HOW THE SIMILE CAME TO TIBET
In the eighth century A.D., a vehement dispute arose in Tibet between representatives of Indian Buddhism, then predominately Maadhyamika, and certain Chinese Buddhists who preached an extreme quietism. The Tibetan king invited the great Indian pandit Kamala`siila to represent the Maadhyamikas in a debate to decide the issue. Accordingly, Kamala`siila composed three treatises called Madhyamaka-bhaavanaa-krama, "The Steps of Cultivation According to the Madhyamaka School." [3] In the second of these treatises, he wrote:

When there is only Higher Vision (vipa`syanaa) that is unaccompanied by Calm (`samatha) the yogin's thought (citta) fluctuates in the sensory domain, just as a fire lamp in the wind is not steady. [4]

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1. S. Radhakrishnan, The Bhagavadgiitaa (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1948), p. 200.

2. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, History of Sri Vijaya (Madras: University of Madras,1949), p. 15.

3. For information on the dispute as a whole and Kamala`siila's role, see Paul Demieville, Le Concile de Lhasa (Paris: Bibliotheque de l'Institut des Hautes Etudes Chinoises, 1952), Vol. VII. This work is reviewed by R. A. Stein, in Journal Asiatique, CCXLI, No. 2 (1953), 277-279; also reviewed by Johannes Rahder in Philosophy East and West, IV, No. 1 (April, 1954), 87.

4. Tanjur, Dbu-ma, Derge edition, Ki, 45a-4, ff.

p. 150

He then illustrated this by quotations from the Parinirvaa.nasuutra and the Candrapradiipasuutra, which quotations themselves did not have the simile. Kamala`siila's familiarity with the Bhagavad-giitaa [5] makes it strongly possible that this was his source, but quite apart from whether a borrowing can be proved in this case, the fact that both the Hindu and the Buddhist theory of yoga could look upon a certain simile as apt is sufficiently important for our purposes. The Bhagavad-giitaa itself was not translated into the Tibetan language, except for some isolated stanzas.

THE SIMILE UTILIZED BY TSON-KHA-PA
In the meditative section of his Lam rim chen mo, [6] Tson-kha-pa (A.D. 1357-1419), founder of the Gelugpa school of Tibetan Buddhism, quotes the above passage of Kamala`siila and develops it in the section from which the following summary by Tson-kha-pa is given in my translation:

Now, why is it that a cultivation (bhaavanaa) of either Calm (`samatha) or Higher Vision (vipa`syanaa) does not suffice, and that both must be cultivated? This is to be explained.
For example, if, for the purpose of seeing icons in the darkness of night, one lights a lamp, if the lamp is very bright and not disturbed by the wind, the icons are seen very clearly. However, if the lamp is not bright, or, if bright, flickers in the wind, the forms are not clearly seen.
In the same way, for seeing the profound meaning, if one has the conclusive Wisdom (praj~naa) without distortion of the meaning of reality, and also has the motionless fixation, exactly as wished, on a meditative object (aalambana) of thought (citta), reality (tattva) is seen clearly.
However, even if there be the retention [7] without discernment (nirvikalpa-samaadhi) [8]

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5. It is referred to and quoted polemically in The Tattvasa^ngraha of `Saantarak.sita with the Commentary of Kamala`siila, translated into English by Ganganatha Jha, Gaekwad's Oriental Series, LXXXIII (Baroda: Oriental institute, 1939), Vol. II, pp. 1349, 1554.

6. I am translating this work from Tibetan under the auspices of the Institute of East Asiatic Studies, University of California. The texts employed are in the form of block-print folios. Of the editions available to me, two are referred to in this article (notes 10, 17, and 21), namely, the volume in Tso^n-kha-pa's collected works (gsu^n .hbum) printed at Lhasa, and the edition of the Tashilunpo Monastery, Tibet. The Lhasa edition is assigned No. 5392 in A Catalogue of The Tohoku University Collection of Tibetan Works on Buddhism, eds., Yensho Kanakura, Ryujo Yamada, Tokan Tada, and Hakuyu Hadano (Sendai: The Seminary of Indology, Tohoku University, 1953). I am also using (note 11) the revised edition of the Four Annotations commentary on the Lam rim chen mo. This edition is assigned Nos. 6976 and 6977 in the catalogue just mentioned.

7. The usual translation of "samaadhi" is "concentration." For "retention," s.v. Webster's New International Dictionary, Second Edition, "4. A retaining or holding fixed in some place or position; state of being kept in place." What is held fixed is thought (citta).

8. Because of the importance of this expression to the article by A. C. Das, "Advaita Vedaanta and Liberation in Bodily Existence," Philosophy East and West, IV, No. 2, (July, 1954), 113, ff., it is well to point out that the Sanskrit nirvikalpa-samaadhi has the standard Tibetan equivalent of mi rtog Pahi tin ne hdzin, which occurs in the text at this point. The Tibetan could also represent avikalpa -- which amounts to the same.

p. 151

having the fixation so that thought does not proceed elsewhere, if the Wisdom with full comprehension of Be-ness (T., yin lugs) [9] is lacking, then, because there is a lack of the eye which sees reality, no matter how one perseveres in retention (samaadhi), there is no possibility of the full comprehension of Be-ness.
Again, even if there be the view with full comprehension of the reality of selflessness (nairaatmya), if there is a lack of the retention (samaadhi) with firm fixation in one-pointed thought, then, because the self, powerless, is agitated by the wind of shifting discernment (cala-vikalpa), there is no possibility of seeing clearly the meaning of Be-ness. That is why both Calm (`sama.tha) and Higher Vision (vipa`syanaa) are required. [10]

CALM AND HIGHER VISION
The simile has been illustrated by two important terms of Buddhism. The place free from wind is Calm (`samatha); the lamp is Higher Vision (vipa`syanaa).

In the Paali canon, the Buddha is represented as saying:

Very well, very well, `Saariputra! Revata rightly answers exactly as he should answer. For Revata has a glade suitable for meditation, and delights in retiring there for this purpose. He is intent on the Calm (`samatha) of thought within and he does not discard his Calm Abstraction (dhyaana). He is equipped with Higher Vision (vipa`syanaa) and devoted to empty abodes (`suunya-aagaara). [11]

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

9. The Tibetan term "yin lugs" does not seem to be a translation from Sanskrit. In the work being quoted (the Lam rim chen mo), it is employed interchangeably with de kho no ~nid, which corresponds to Sanskrit tattva (reality). "Yin lugs" is properly rendered in full as "manner (lugs) of being (yin)." It is not strictly equivalent in form to "Being," and this is one reason that the expression "Be-ness" was adopted in preference to this Western philosophical term.

10. Tson-kha-pa, Gsun hbum, Lhasa edition, Pa, 269b-4, ff.

11. For consistency, the equivalent Sanskrit terms have been given in lieu of the Paali. For the original passage, see V. Trenckner, ed., Majjhima-Nikaaya, Pali Text Society, XVII (London: Oxford University press, 1935 reprint), vol. I, p. 216. The expression "empty abodes" deserves comment. It has been translated as "solitary abodes," or the equal of this, with the implication that the meditator is the only person present. Such an interpretation has the difficulty that the word "viveka," customarily employed in these contexts for the meanings "solitary" and "solitude," did not occur, while the Paali word "su~n~na" (Sanskrit, `suunya), which means "empty, " "desolate, " and "uninhabited," did occur. However, the literal rendition of "empty" seems to be justified by the formula of Dependent Origination (pratiitya-samutpaada). The sixth of the twelve members is called "contact" (spar`sa). This involves a trisection of the world into perception (vij~naana); a personal sensory source, or sense-organ (indriya); and an external sensory source, or sensory domain (vi.saya). If, by attainment in meditation, one can collapse the distinction of subject, agent, and object, it is a logical consequence in Buddhist doctrine that the immediately preceding condition of Dependent Origination is reached. This is the fifth member, called "six sensory sources" (.sa.aaayatana). In the Four Annotations Commentary on the Lam rim chen mo, Ba so chos kyi rgyal mtshan, Sixth Abbot of Galdan Monastery (A.D. 1402-1473), annotates (Kha, 226a-2) the Tibetan equivalent for .sa.daayatana with the phrase gron ston hdra ("like an empty town"). He is here describing the symbolic representation of this member in the celebrated Tibetan Wheel of Life, of which a good recent reproduction is given by Fosco Maraini, Secret Tibet (New York: The Viking Press, 1952), photographic plate No. 60, picturing, at the relevant place, six houses with no person in sight. Since in the Paali passage the remark about the "empty abodes" occurs promptly after the reference to Higher Vision (vipa`syanaa), we may assume that Revata was skilled in attaining the vision of Voidness (`suunyataa). Consequently, the "abodes" were completely uninhabited, devoid even of Revata, who was devoted to attaining this vision of things.

p. 152

Sometimes `samatha is translated as "tranquility" or "calmness, " vipa`syanaa as "insight":

The object of meditation with the Buddha seems to have been to attain first tranquility of mind, and then activity of insight. This idea is common to both Hinayana and Mahayana. [12]

The two terms have also been translated, respectively, as "mental tranquility" and "transcendental analysis." [l3] However, "insight" and transcendental analysis" are explanations, rather than literal translations, of vipa`syanaa, and point to activities subsumed under the general idea of this expression, for which the literal rendition Higher (vi-) Vision (pa`syanaa), is satisfactory.[14]

The cultivation of Calm (`samatha-bhaavanaa) aims at perfect steadiness of the reflected image (pratibimba) in thought (citta) of the meditative object (aalambana). Success is constituted by the ninth (and last) thought-fixation (citta-sthiti) which is the only mental orientation driving without effort (anaabhogavaahana-manaskaara), [15] due to previous, but no longer required, eliminative activation (prahaa.na-sa^mskaara), i.e., activations eliminative of meditative faults in the first eight thought-fixations. Thus, the ninth thought-fixation is carried by habituation (svarasavaahita) accomplished in the eighth thought-fixation, which still had effort. This is equivalent to the svarasika ("purely passive") of Stcherbatsky in this passage:

It [the unexpressible reality] is the pure object, the object cognized by the senses in a pure sensation, that is to say, in a sensation which is purely passive, which is different in kind from the spontaneity of the intellect. [16]

The meditative object of Calm alone is called Reflected image devoid of discernment (nirvikalpa-pratibimba); that of Higher Vision alone is called Reflected image attended with discernment (savikalpa-pratibimba). The meditative object of combined Calm and Higher Vision (`samatha-vipa`syanaayuganaddha) is called Fulfillment of the requirement (kaarya-parini.spatti).

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

12. Junjiro Takakusu, The Essentials of Buddhist Philosophy, W. T. Chan and Charles A. Moore, eds., (2d ed., Honolulu: University of Hawaii, 1949), p. 157.

13. E. Obermiller, " The Doctrine of Praj~naa- paaramitaa as exposed in the Abhisamayaala.mkaara of Maitreya," Acta Orientalia, XI, (1932), 17.

14. Alexandra David-Neel translates the Tibetan equivalent, "Lhag mtho^n," as "la vue penetrante" and makes it a subtitle to her work, Les Enseignements Secrets dans les Sectes Bouddhistes Tibetaines (Paris: Adyar, 1951). Hsuan-tsang, in his translation of the `Sravaka-bhuumi, transcribed `samatha and vipa`syanaa phonetically, for example, Tripi.taka, Taisho edition, XXX, 476c.

15. The nine thought-fixations, the six forces which accomplish them, and the four mental orientations under which they are grouped, are well explained in the `Sravaka-bhuumi by the teacher of Asa^nga, founder of the Yogaacaara school. I am editing this text in Sanskrit through the kindness of the Bihar Research Society, Patna, India.

16. Th. Stcherbatsky, Buddhist Logic, Bibliotheca Buddhica, XXVI (Leningrad: Akademiia Nauk, 1932), I, 181.

p. 153

Furthermore, the subject can be treated by using different, but equivalent, terminology. Thus, Tso^n-kha-pa writes:

While those benefits are discussed using the terms "Calm" (`samatha) and "Higher Vision" (vipa`syanaa), there are allusions to the benefits of Calm Abstraction (dhyaana) and Wisdom (praj~naa), which have a similar meaning, although not discussing the matter using the terms "Calm" and "Higher Vision." [17]

Also, it is said in the "General Summary of the Tantras" (Rgyud sde spyi rnam) by Mkhas grub Dge legs dpal bzan po:

In generality, the coupling of `samatha and vipa`syanaa in samaadhi is, so to speak, the spine of the ways, both of Paaramitaa-yaana (Vehicle of Perfections) and of Mantrayaana (Vehicle of Magical Practices).
In the Paaramitaa-yaana, one first perfects `samatha. Having mastered this completely, one uses it as the basis for practicing vipa`syanaa.
When that is accomplished with all its marks, there is a proceeding into the coupling of `samatha and vipa`syanaa.
The four Mantra-tantras do not especially explain the method of `samatha, nor is this necessary. Accomplishing the yoga of the deities involves a complete `samatha, with all its marks. [18]

COMPARISON WITH THE HINDU PHILOSOPHICAL POSITION
Specialists in Indian philosophy may be able to know whether or not the preceding illustration of the simile conforms to its usage in the Bhagavadgiitaa. Nevertheless, an elementary affinity is suggested. That work has the basic dualism of prak.rti, the substratum of matter, and puru.sa, the perceiver. Hence, the "place free from wind" might be prak.rti; the "lamp," puru.sa.

Again, if the "wind" be what is called praa.na, we may consider this remark of Dasgupta:

But when the praa.na lies dormant in the hollow of the veins (`siraa-sara.ni-ko.tare), then there is no manifestation of mind, and its processes and the cognitive functions do not operate. [19]

Using this terminology, perhaps the dormant state of praa.na is necessary to have a "place free from wind."

Finally, it is said by Das:

According to the Advaitist, nirvikalpa samaadhi is the ultimate state of ecstatic trance, in which Brahman in its true undifferentiated and unconditioned nature is realized.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

17. Tso^n-kha-pa, op. cit., 226a-2, 3.

18. Quoted from a manuscript translation of this work from Tibetan by F. D. Lessing and Alex Wayman, which is being readied for publication.

19. Surendranath Dasgupta, A History of Indian Philosophy, Vol. II (Cambridge: The University Press, 1932), p. 256. At this place, Dasgupta has a note concerning his translation of `siraa as veins.

p. 154

This state is one of absolute identity. The aspirant merges into Brahman; his ego or individuality is eliminated; all differentiation ceases; and he in fact becomes Brahman. But, if that were really the ultimate state, no one could ever return from it to teach illusionism on earth. [20]

In my understanding of Tson-kha-pa's position, he would agree that it is "the ultimate state of ecstatic trance," but not that it is the highest accomplishment. It represents the "place free from wind" and then a "lamp" must he added. In regard to how the latter is achieved, Tso^n-kha-pa quotes the Kaa`syapa-parivarta:

Kaa`syapa, thus, for example, when two trees are rubbed together by the wind, and fire arises [from the friction], [that fire], having arisen, burns the two trees. In the same way, Kaa`syapa, [when things are analyzed] by right discrimination (samyakpratyavek.sa.na), the faculty of Noble Wisdom (aarya-praj~naa) is born; and, [that Fire] having been born, it burns up that right discrimination itself. [21]

Here, Noble Wisdom can be taken as the "lamp." [22]

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

20. A. C. Das (as cited in n.8), p. 113.
21. Lam rim chen mo, Tashilunpo edition, 476a-4, ff. The Tibetan and the various Chinese versions for this are given by Baron A. Von Stael-Holstein, The Kaacyapa-parivarta (Shanghai: Commercial Press, 1926) , pp. 102, 103. The Sanskrit for this particular passage is not exant. It may be observed that the notion of "wind" is not essential for the simile; indeed, it was called to my attention that the early Chinese translations do not have the word "wind." In sure a case, the translation would be "... when two pieces of wood are rubbed together, and fire arises".... It appears that the early version of the text was comparing the production of Wisdom (praj~naa) to the production of fire by two friction sticks, called ara.ni.

22. It would also be germane to discuss in this section the terms Nirgu.na Brahman (Brahman without attributes) and Sagu.na Brahman (Brahman with attributes), but words would multiply out of proportion to the title. For a brief introduction to this topic, see Haridas Chaudhuri, "The Concept of Brahman in Hindu Philosophy," Philosophy East and West, IV, No. 1 (April, 1954), 47-66.